Gender remains one of the most debated themes in contemporary Qur’anic studies. Discussions concerning equality, authority, inheritance, leadership, and family relations continue to shape scholarly and public debates on Islam in both Muslim-majority and global academic contexts. In these debates, the Qur’an is frequently invoked as a foundational source for articulating norms concerning the relationship between men and women [1]. Yet the interpretive outcomes of such engagements vary considerably, reflecting not only textual differences but also divergent hermeneutical, legal, and ideological assumptions. Much of the current debate on gender in Islam is marked by polarization [2]. On one side are readings that treat certain gender-related verses as evidence of fixed male authority and enduring hierarchical order [3]. On the other side are interpretations that seek to align the Qur’an entirely with modern egalitarian categories, sometimes without sufficient attention to the text’s own conceptual and ethical architecture [4]. Both approaches, despite their differences, often risk reducing the Qur’an’s gender discourse to isolated passages or externally imposed binaries.

A substantial body of scholarship has addressed these issues through feminist hermeneutics, Islamic legal theory, and contextual interpretation. Such studies have significantly advanced the field by challenging patriarchal assumptions, distinguishing between text and interpretation, and re-evaluating the relationship between revelation and social reality [5]. Nevertheless, many existing studies remain partial in scope [6]. They frequently center on a limited number of contentious verses while leaving underexplored the broader thematic coherence through which the Qur’an conceptualizes human dignity, moral agency, reciprocity, and justice across male-female relations [7]. This article identifies that gap and responds to it by employing a thematic exegetical (tafsīr mawḍū‘ī) approach to the study of gender in the Qur’an [8]. Rather than reading individual verses in isolation, this study reconstructs the Qur’an’s discourse on gender through interconnected themes [9], including human creation, spiritual accountability, ethical reciprocity, family responsibility, inheritance, and social participation [10]. In doing so, it seeks to recover the internal coherence of the Qur’anic worldview as it relates to men and women.

The central argument of this article is that the Qur’an affirms the ontological and spiritual equality of men and women while also recognizing certain context-based distinctions in roles and responsibilities [11]. These distinctions are not best understood as markers of essential hierarchy, but as components of a broader moral framework rooted in justice [12], accountability, reciprocity, and social balance. Such a reading allows for a more nuanced understanding of Qur’anic gender discourse beyond the binary of patriarchy versus sameness [13]. The broader significance of this study lies in its contribution to ongoing international conversations on religion, gender, and scriptural ethics [14]. By offering a balanced and textually grounded reading of gender in the Qur’an [15], this article aims to enrich contemporary debates not only in Qur’anic studies and Islamic thought, but also in wider discussions on how sacred texts can be interpreted in relation to justice, dignity, and plural social life.

Scholarly discussions on gender in the Qur’an have developed through multiple interpretive trajectories, ranging from reformist exegesis and feminist hermeneutics to contextualist and neo-traditional readings [16]. These approaches differ not only in their conclusions regarding women and men, but also in their assumptions about revelation, authority, language, ethics, and the relationship between text and history [17]. As a result, contemporary debates on gender in Islam cannot be reduced to a simple opposition between “traditional” and “modern” readings; rather, they represent a complex field of interpretive negotiation.

Among the most influential voices in contemporary Qur’anic gender discourse is Amina Wadud, whose work emphasizes the ethical and theological unity of the Qur’an and argues that patriarchal readings often stem from male-centered interpretation rather than from the text itself [18]. Her hermeneutical method foregrounds tawḥīd, textual coherence, and the inclusion of women’s lived experiences in interpretation [19]. Wadud’s contribution is significant because she shifts the debate from isolated legal verses to the Qur’an’s broader moral and theological vision [20]. Recent scholarship continues to identify her as a foundational figure in Islamic feminist hermeneutics and in debates on how universal Qur’anic ethics should inform the reading of gendered verses

A related but distinct contribution comes from Asma Barlas, who argues that the Qur’an itself is not patriarchal, but has often been interpreted through patriarchal epistemologies. Barlas places particular emphasis on divine justice, anti-patriarchal theology, and the need to “unread” inherited assumptions that project male authority into the text [21]. Her work is especially important in challenging the theological naturalization of patriarchy and in distinguishing between the Qur’an and the history of its interpretation. Contemporary studies continue to engage her anti-patriarchal reading, especially in relation to verses on creation, authority, and gender justice

Earlier reformulations of women’s status in Islam were also shaped by Riffat Hassan, whose writings challenged theological assumptions about women’s inferiority, especially in relation to creation narratives, moral accountability, and spiritual agency [3]. Hassan’s intervention is important because she helped redirect attention from legal questions alone toward deeper theological anthropology. In this respect, she opened an important pathway for later feminist and reformist Qur’anic scholarship by insisting that gender inequality in Muslim societies often reflects interpretive history rather than divine intent.

A more legal-ethical perspective is developed by Kecia Ali, whose scholarship highlights the relationship between scriptural interpretation, legal reasoning, and gendered norms in Muslim thought. Her work is especially useful for understanding how ethical ideals and juridical formulations may diverge, particularly in matters of marriage, sexuality, and authority [22]. Ali’s contribution helps demonstrate that Qur’anic interpretation on gender cannot be fully understood without attention to how legal traditions institutionalized particular readings of male-female relations.

Within broader Islamic hermeneutics, Fazlur Rahman provides a major methodological foundation through his emphasis on the moral trajectory of the Qur’an and the need to move from historical particularity to universal ethical principles. Although Rahman did not focus exclusively on gender, his interpretive framework remains highly relevant because it allows gender-related verses to be read within the Qur’an’s wider ethical architecture rather than as isolated legal prescriptions [23]. This approach is particularly useful for distinguishing between normative moral objectives and historically contingent social forms.

A similar concern with contextual and ethically responsible interpretation can be found in the work of Abdullah Saeed, who advocates contextualist readings of the Qur’an that remain faithful to revelation while recognizing historical change [24]. Saeed’s contribution is important for contemporary Qur’anic studies because he provides methodological tools for interpreting socially embedded verses—including those related to gender—without collapsing either into rigid literalism or unrestricted relativism.

In the Indonesian context, Nasaruddin Umar is among the most important scholars to systematically address gender in the Qur’an. His work is particularly significant for distinguishing between biological difference and socially constructed gender roles, while also demonstrating how many assumptions about women in Muslim societies emerge from historical-cultural interpretation rather than from the Qur’an itself [25]. Nasaruddin Umar’s scholarship remains one of the most influential references for gender-sensitive Qur’anic studies in Indonesia.

Meanwhile, M. Quraish Shihab offers a more textually rooted and socially moderate reading of gender in the Qur’an. His interpretations are important because they neither fully replicate rigid patriarchal models nor wholly adopt activist feminist frameworks. Instead, Shihab often emphasizes ethical balance, family harmony, contextual reading, and the distinction between universal principles and social application [26]. His works are especially relevant for scholars seeking a middle path between polemical conservatism and ideologically overdetermined reinterpretation.

Taken together, these scholars demonstrate that gender in the Qur’an is not a settled or monolithic subject, but a field of ongoing interpretive contestation. However, much of the existing scholarship tends to proceed through either feminist critique, legal reconstruction, or contextual hermeneutics without sufficiently integrating the Qur’an’s broader thematic coherence across theological, ethical, and social dimensions [27]. This article seeks to contribute to that gap by employing a thematic exegetical (tafsīr mawḍū‘ī) approach that reconstructs the Qur’an’s discourse on gender through interconnected themes of creation, spirituality, reciprocity, justice, and responsibility.

Beyond these major voices, several other scholars further enrich the academic discussion on gender in Islam and provide important analytical tools for this study. Aisha Abd al-Rahman (Bint al-Shāṭi’) represents a significant internal Muslim precedent for women’s participation in Qur’anic interpretation [28]. Her scholarship is important not only because of its exegetical value, but also because it demonstrates that women’s intellectual engagement with the Qur’an is rooted within the Islamic scholarly tradition itself rather than being merely a contemporary external intervention.

From the perspective of law and gender, Ziba Mir-Hosseini offers an important distinction between the ethical vision of Islam and the patriarchal structures that may emerge in legal codification and social practice. Her work is particularly useful in clarifying that gender inequality in Muslim societies often reflects the historical development of jurisprudence and legal authority rather than the totality of the Qur’an’s moral discourse [29]. This distinction is especially relevant when discussing inheritance, marriage, and authority in family life.

Leila Ahmed contributes a crucial historical dimension to the study of gender in Islam. Her scholarship demonstrates that discourses on women in Muslim societies are shaped not only by scriptural interpretation, but also by colonial encounters, modern reformist projects, and shifting socio-political contexts [30]. Her work is valuable in reminding scholars that contemporary gender debates cannot be understood apart from their historical formation.

Meanwhile, Khaled Abou El Fadl provides an important ethical framework for evaluating authority in Islamic interpretation. His critique of authoritarian hermeneutics is especially relevant to gender-related Qur’anic verses, which are often invoked in ways that foreclose interpretive complexity and ethical accountability[31]. His work supports the argument that a responsible reading of the Qur’an must combine fidelity to the text with humility, moral seriousness, and resistance to interpretive domination.

Taken together, these scholars broaden the field of inquiry by showing that the question of gender in the Qur’an is simultaneously exegetical, theological, historical, legal, and ethical . This study builds on these conversations, but seeks to contribute by reconstructing the Qur’an’s discourse on gender through a thematic exegetical framework that integrates these dimensions into a more coherent reading of equality, complementarity, and justice.

Discussions on gender in the Qur’an remain among the most contested themes in contemporary Islamic thought. Questions concerning equality, leadership, inheritance, family roles, and public participation continue to generate diverse interpretations among Muslim scholars, exegetes, and contemporary intellectuals. In many cases, the debate is not solely about the Qur’anic text itself, but also about the interpretive frameworks through which the text is approached [32]. As a result, discussions on gender in Islam often oscillate between two extremes: one that reads the Qur’an as endorsing fixed hierarchical relations, and another that treats all distinctions between men and women as necessarily unjust.

Within contemporary scholarship, gender has increasingly been understood not merely as a biological distinction but as a socially and culturally mediated system of roles, expectations, and power relations. This conceptual distinction has significantly influenced Qur’anic studies, especially in debates on whether the Qur’an promotes equality, complementarity, or hierarchy between men and women [33]. Such debates are particularly relevant because many interpretations of gendered Qur’anic verses have historically been shaped by legal, social, and patriarchal contexts rather than by a comprehensive reading of the Qur’an as a unified ethical discourse.

A number of studies have examined gender in the Qur’an through feminist hermeneutics, legal interpretation, and socio-historical analysis. However, many of these discussions tend to focus only on a limited set of controversial verses, such as Q. 4:34 or Q. 2:228, without sufficiently situating them within the Qur’an’s broader theological and moral worldview [34]. Other studies discuss gender in Islam in a general way but do not systematically reconstruct the Qur’an’s own conceptual framework regarding men and women [35]. This creates an important scholarly gap: the need for a thematic and integrative exegetical study that reads the relevant verses not in isolation, but as part of a coherent Qur’anic discourse.

The contribution of Aisha Abd al-Rahman is especially important in demonstrating that women’s engagement with Qur’anic interpretation is not merely a contemporary activist intervention, but also part of a broader internal tradition of Muslim scholarship. Mir-Hosseini’s scholarship is particularly useful for distinguishing the Qur’an’s ethical discourse from the patriarchal formulations that may emerge in historical legal traditions [36]. Ahmed’s historical analysis is valuable in showing that discourses on women and Islam are shaped not only by scripture, but also by broader historical, political, and colonial encounters. Abou El Fadl’s ethical critique of authoritarian interpretation provides an important framework for approaching gender-related verses with both textual seriousness and moral responsibility.

This article seeks to address that gap by examining the concept of gender in the Qur’an through a thematic exegetical (tafsīr mawḍū‘ī) approach. It aims to analyze how the Qur’an conceptualizes the relationship between men and women, particularly in relation to equality [37], difference, and social responsibility. By tracing key verses on creation, moral accountability, spiritual reward, family ethics, inheritance, and social cooperation, this article argues that the Qur’an affirms the ontological and spiritual equality of men and women while also recognizing certain distinctions that are contextual, functional, and responsibility-based rather than ontologically hierarchical.

The significance of this study lies in its attempt to reposition the discourse on gender in the Qur’an within a framework of justice, reciprocity, and moral accountability. Rather than reducing Qur’anic gender discourse to either rigid patriarchy or absolute sameness, this article proposes that the Qur’an articulates a morally balanced model of human relations grounded in shared dignity and differentiated responsibility.

This study employs a qualitative library research design with a thematic exegetical (tafsīr mawḍū‘ī) approach. The thematic method is chosen because it enables the researcher to collect, organize, and interpret Qur’anic verses related to a particular issue—in this case, gender relations—in a systematic and integrative manner [38]. Rather than examining isolated verses separately, this method seeks to reconstruct the Qur’an’s broader conceptual discourse regarding men and women.

The primary source of this study is the Qur’an, particularly verses related to human creation, moral responsibility, worship, family relations, inheritance, leadership, and social participation [39]. These verses are analyzed with reference to selected classical and modern exegetical works, including representative interpretations from both traditional and contemporary scholarship [40]. Classical tafsir sources are used to identify established exegetical understandings, while modern interpretations are employed to explore how Qur’anic gender discourse is reread in contemporary contexts.

Secondary sources consist of scholarly books and journal articles on Qur’anic studies, gender theory, Islamic thought, and hermeneutics. These sources are used not only to provide conceptual clarification but also to situate the study within broader academic debates concerning equality, complementarity, patriarchy, and justice in Islam.

The data analysis proceeds through four stages. First, relevant Qur’anic verses are identified and grouped into thematic clusters. Second, each cluster is interpreted in light of linguistic, contextual, and exegetical considerations. Third, the findings are compared across classical and contemporary interpretive tendencies [41]. Fourth, the results are synthesized to formulate a coherent understanding of gender in the Qur’an. Through this method, the study seeks to move beyond fragmentary readings and instead present a holistic account of the Qur’anic construction of gender relations.

This study has shown that the Qur’an presents a nuanced and ethically grounded understanding of gender relations. Through a thematic exegetical approach, it becomes clear that the Qur’an affirms the ontological and spiritual equality of men and women, while also recognizing certain distinctions in social and familial responsibilities. These distinctions, however, should not be interpreted as evidence of absolute male superiority or female inferiority.

The Qur’anic discourse on gender is better understood through the interconnected principles of justice, reciprocity, moral accountability, and shared human dignity. Men and women are equally addressed as servants of God, equally capable of righteousness, and equally accountable for their actions. At the same time, the Qur’an acknowledges that some roles may be differentiated in relation to context, obligation, and social function.

Accordingly, this article argues that the Qur’an neither endorses a rigid hierarchical patriarchy nor advocates an undifferentiated sameness between the sexes. Instead, it offers a balanced moral vision in which equality and complementarity coexist within a framework of divine justice. Such a reading is important not only for Qur’anic studies, but also for contemporary Muslim efforts to articulate gender relations in a way that is both textually rooted and ethically meaningful.

Mukhlis Widodo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Investigation.

The author gratefully acknowledges Institut Agama Islam Al-Hidayah Bogor, West Java, Indonesia, and the anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments and constructive feedback, which significantly enhanced the quality of this paper.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

This research did not receive any financial support.