1. The Sun as a Source of Life Energy

The sun is a blessing from Allah Subḥānahu wa Ta‘ālā that He has bestowed upon this universe. Among the many chapters in the Qur’an, there is one named Asy-Shams (The Sun). The sun plays a vital and essential role in life on Earth, as it serves as the source of life energy. As Allah Ta‘ālā states in QS. Ash-Syams: 1-5

وَالشَّمْسِ وَضُحٰىهَا (١) وَالْقَمَرِ اِذَا تَلٰىهَا (٢) وَالنَّهَارِ اِذَا جَلّٰىهَا (٣) وَالَّيْلِ اِذَا يَغْشٰىهَا (٤) وَالسَّمَآءِ وَمَا بَنٰىهَا (٥)

In the words of Allah, “wa asy-shamsi wa ḍuḥāhā”, there is a diversity of interpretations that reflects the richness of approaches in Qur’anic exegesis. Mujāhid and al-Kalbī understand ḍuḥāhā as the sunlight, while Qatādah and al-Farrā’ interpret it as the entire daytime, and Muqātil understands it as the sun’s heat. This variety is linguistically acceptable because the root word aḍ-ḍuḥā indeed carries the meaning of spreading brightness [24]. However, when analyzed from the perspective of the Qur’anic oath (qasam) structure and the cosmic role of the sun, the meaning “sunlight” (ḍiyā’) is more persuasive argumentatively, as light is the most fundamental aspect that makes the sun worthy of being the object of a divine oath.

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī provides a more profound elaboration than other exegetes. He not only explains the linguistic meaning of the term but also connects it to the cosmological and theological significance of the sun. According to al-Rāzī, Allah swears by the sun because it is the greatest created entity perceivable by human senses. By manifesting its light, heat, and energy, the sun becomes a clear sign of Allah’s greatness [24]. Al-Rāzī’s emphasis that all pronouns (ḍamīr) in verses 1–5 refer back to the sun reflects a consistent structural approach while affirming the sun’s central position in the sequence of oaths.

Contemporary astronomical knowledge shows that the sun is a massive sphere of gas that produces light and heat through nuclear fusion reactions in its core, with only a small fraction of its radiative energy reaching the earth. This scientific fact not only supports al-Rāzī’s assertion about the sun’s greatness but also broadens the understanding of ḍuḥā as an outpouring of energy that enables life. Solar energy forms the foundation of all ecosystems, especially through the process of photosynthesis, which allows plants to produce food and oxygen [25]. Zaghlūl an-Najjār’s view that solar energy is the origin of all energy on earth (except nuclear energy) reinforces al-Rāzī’s statement that the sun is an irreplaceable source of life.

Thus, the integration between al-Rāzī’s interpretation and the findings of modern science provides a comprehensive perspective: sunlight is not merely a physical phenomenon but also a symbol of divine greatness that affirms the order of the cosmos. Classical exegesis offers the theological and spiritual foundation, while science provides an empirical framework that concretely demonstrates the sun’s immense role in sustaining life. Together, they complement and enrich one another, resulting in a holistic understanding that the sun is a blessing from Allah with inseparable scientific, cosmological, and theological value.

2. The Sun as a Means of Time Calculation

In addition to being a source of light and energy, the Qur’an affirms that the sun also functions as an instrument for time reckoning. Allah’s words in Q.S Al-An‘ām: 96

فَالِقُ الْاِصْبَاحِۚ وَجَعَلَ الَّيْلَ سَكَنًا وَّالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ حُسْبَانًا ۗذٰلِكَ تَقْدِيْرُ الْعَزِيْزِ الْعَلِيْمِ

The phrase “wa asy-shamsa wal-qamara ḥusbānā” explicitly emphasizes that the sun and the moon are appointed by Allah as cosmic instruments that can be precisely calculated and measured. This assertion forms the epistemological basis for calendrical systems in human civilization [26]. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī explains this verse through a multidisciplinary approach involving linguistics, classical astronomy, and theology, demonstrating the breadth of his exegetical method.

From a linguistic perspective, al-Rāzī highlights differing opinions regarding the word ḥusbān: whether it is the plural form of ḥisāb or a verbal noun (maṣdar) that conveys an intensified meaning (mubālaghah). This explanation shows that al-Rāzī views the cosmic structure not merely as a physical phenomenon but also as an orderly system that can serve as a mathematical foundation for time calculation [26]. Thus, al-Rāzī understands ḥusbān not simply as “calculation,” but as “highly precise calculation,” reflecting the orderliness of natural laws as a manifestation of God’s will.

Cosmologically, al-Rāzī emphasizes that the regularity of the sun’s revolution over the course of a year and the moon’s orbit over the course of a month forms the foundation of a stable system of life: the alternation of seasons, the growth and ripening of crops, and the structuring of human activities. Al-Rāzī presents a theological argument that even a slight alteration in their orbital patterns would cause great damage to ecological and social order. This reasoning reflects his integrative perspective that astronomical order has direct implications for the continuity of life—an idea that aligns with the principle of causality in modern science.

When compared with contemporary scientific approaches such as those explained by Zaghlūl al-Najjār, the difference in emphasis becomes clear. Al-Najjār interprets this verse through the lens of modern astronomy: the earth’s rotation produces day and night, while its revolution generates the annual cycle and the change of seasons. This perspective is reinforced by physical explanations that one day is measured by the earth’s 24-hour rotation, and one year by its revolution of approximately 365¼ days [27]. The apparent motion of the sun, shifting 23°26′26″ from the celestial equator, is also a direct result of the earth’s axial tilt relative to its orbital plane a phenomenon impossible to determine with precision in al-Rāzī’s era.

In this context, al-Rāzī’s interpretation demonstrates strength in its philosophical and theological dimensions, while modern science provides a detailed empirical explanation of the physical mechanisms involved. Critical analysis reveals that although these two approaches differ in their methods, they actually complement one another. Al-Rāzī offers a conceptual framework in which astronomical order is seen as a sign of God’s greatness, whereas modern science explains how that order operates through natural laws. When read harmoniously, the two create an epistemological bridge between revelation and science. Revelation provides metaphysical meaning, while science explains the observable physical mechanisms [28]. Thus, this verse can be understood as a theological foundation for the timekeeping systems constructed by humanity, whether in the form of the lunas (qamariyyah) or solar (syamsiyyah) calendar. This interpretation remains relevant because it offers a flexible interpretive framework that can be integrated with modern astronomical data without creating epistemological contradictions.

3. The Sun as a Healer of Diseases

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s interpretation of the Qur’anic verses related to sunlight in QS. Asy-Shams and Yunus positions the sun as a cosmic phenomenon connected to health and well-being. Allah says:

وَالشَّمْسِ وَضُحٰىهَاۖ

Al-Rāzī presents three interpretations regarding the meaning of the word “ḍuḥāhā” in Surah Ash-Shams. Mujāhid interprets it as sunlight. Qatādah, al-Farrā’, and Ibn Qutaibah interpret it as the entire daytime period. Muqātil interprets it as the heat of the sun. Linguistically, aḍ-ḍuḥā refers to the time when the sun begins to rise higher and its light becomes clearly visible on earth. Thus, these three interpretations are interconnected: light, heat, and daytime are all manifestations of the sun’s rays [29]. Allah swears by the sun and its radiance because from it emerges life and human activity after the calmness of the night [24]. The time of ḍuḥā becomes a symbol of vitality and tranquility, similar to the bliss experienced by the inhabitants of Paradise.

Zaghlūl al-Najjār adds that during the ḍuḥā period, solar energy reaches its highest intensity, affecting layers of the earth’s atmosphere such as the ozone and ionosphere, which expand in the morning and contract toward the night [30]. Moreover, sunlight regulates the production of the hormone melatonin through the pineal gland, which plays an important role in sleep cycles and bodily health [27]. At this time, solar energy begins to reach the earth with maximum intensity, influencing ecological systems, atmospheric balance, and the biological functions of living beings, including humans.

This corresponds with Allah’s statement in QS. Yunus verse 5, which affirms that the sun was created as a source of energy—not merely as a measure of time, but also as a regulator of the entire system of life. Allah says:

هُوَ الَّذِيْ جَعَلَ الشَّمْسَ ضِيَآءً وَّالْقَمَرَ نُوْرًا

In this surah, it is explained that the creation of the sun is not merely a cosmic beauty but also a means of benefit for life. Scientifically, sunlight plays a major role in human health, particularly through the formation of vitamin D from exposure to UV-B rays, which is essential for bones, the immune system, and the body’s metabolism [31]. Sunlight is also used in light therapy (heliotherapy) for various conditions such as hyperbilirubinemia in infants, skin disorders, muscle and bone problems, and for maintaining biological rhythms and emotional stability [32]. However, these benefits depend on proper intensity and dosage of exposure.

In the tafsīr of Tantāwī al-Jawharī, it is explained that many people travel to beaches or mountains during summer to obtain fresh air and health-enhancing sunlight. According to him, all health benefits originate from sunlight, especially ultraviolet (UV) rays, which are abundant in areas with clear air such as mountains and coastlines [33]. He emphasizes the importance of sunbathing (tasyammus) with caution. Sunlight should directly touch the skin without barriers and be done gradually to avoid burns or inflammation [34]. The best times to sunbathe are in the morning after sunrise and in the late afternoon before sunset, because UV rays at those times are gentler [35]. Individual factors such as age, skin color, and physical condition also need to be considered, and it is recommended to drink plenty of water during sun exposure.

Modern science, from biomedical and physiological perspectives, explains several concrete mechanisms through which sunlight contributes to human health. Among these are the synthesis of vitamin D through UV-B radiation, which plays a crucial role in calcium-phosphate homeostasis and bone health; the regulation of circadian rhythms through light exposure, which affects the production of melatonin and serotonin, thereby influencing sleep quality and mood; and the application of phototherapy, which has been proven effective for certain dermatological conditions and seasonal mood disorders [36]. These findings offer operational explanations for the healing functionalities that are implicitly suggested in classical exegetical expressions.

From the perspective of scientific knowledge, although the healing mechanisms and health benefits of sunlight are strongly supported by evidence, science also shows significant risks—for example, excessive UV exposure increases the risk of DNA damage, skin aging, and skin cancer. Thus, the medical understanding of the “benefits” of sunlight always carries a dose–response dimension: benefits arise at the right level and timing of exposure, whereas excessive exposure can be harmful. This critique requires that theological claims praising the sun as a “healer” not be misused as justification for unrestricted sunbathing or for neglecting medical preventive practices.

4. The Sun as the Cause of Day and Night

The phenomenon of the alternation of day and night is part of the cosmic system that demonstrates the precision and orderliness of Allah’s creation. As stated in QS. Yā Sīn, verse 38:

وَالشَّمْسُ تَجْرِيْ لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا ۗ ذٰلِكَ تَقْدِيْرُ الْعَزِيْزِ الْعَلِيْمِ

Islam encourages its followers to contemplate the universe that surrounds them as a means of understanding the signs of Allah’s greatness [37]. In this verse, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī understands the phrase “wa al-shamsu tajrī li mustaqarrin lahā” as an affirmation that the movement of the sun is among the signs of Allah’s power related to the phenomena of day and night. By explaining that the particle wāw at the beginning of the verse is connected to the previous verse discussing night and day, al-Rāzī positions the sun as an integral element within a well-ordered cosmic structure [38]. He interprets mustaqarr with two possible meanings: a specific location within the sun’s orbit, and a specific time related to the annual cycle and the variation of day-night lengths [39]. This approach reflects al-Rāzī’s broad exegetical methodology, which opens the verse to both astronomical and metaphysical dimensions [39]. However, his interpretation remains within the framework of classical scientific understanding that still adopted a geocentric paradigm—that is, the assumption that the sun revolves around the earth.

In modern science, the sun is not stationary but moves in three ways: it rotates on its axis approximately every 27 days at the equator, it orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a speed of about 828,000 km/h, and it moves together with the solar system toward the star Vega. These motions indicate that the sun indeed “runs its course,” as described in the Qur’an. Meanwhile, the earth is tilted relative to the sun’s equatorial plane and moves in an elliptical orbit, causing the earth’s position relative to the sun to continually change [40]. This results in variations in the length of day and night and in the succession of seasons, which recur consistently every year.

Thus, the sun is not only a source of light but also a determinant of time, a regulator of daily cycles, and a manifest proof of the power and knowledge of Allah, the Almighty and All-Knowing. This entire orderly system is part of Allah’s decree and divine determination, which is not subject to the laws of created beings, for He is the Creator of the laws and the order of the universe.

5. The Sun as a Determiner of Prayer Times

Allah says in QS. Isra’: 78:

أَقِمِ الصَّلٰوةَ لِدُلُوْكِ الشَّمْسِ اِلٰى غَسَقِ الَّيْلِ وَقُرْاٰنَ الْفَجْرِۗ اِنَّ قُرْاٰنَ الْفَجْرِ كَانَ مَشْهُوْدًا

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī interprets the phrase li-dulūki al-syams as the sun’s decline from its zenith or its setting, which marks the beginning of the sequence of daytime and nighttime prayer times. This interpretation places the movement of the sun as the cause of the obligation to perform the prayers, as indicated by the lam particle which conveys a meaning of causality[39]. He also interprets ghasaq al-layl as the onset of the night’s darkness, signaling the end of Maghrib time and the beginning of ʿIshāʾ. This view is consistent with explanations by linguistic scholars such as Ibn ʿAbbās and al-Azhari, although it remains phenomenological in nature, based on how people of that era perceived celestial phenomena. Critically, al-Rāzī’s interpretation is still rooted in the classical cosmological paradigm that uses the sun’s movement as the basis for dividing time, whereas in modern astronomy the progression of time is determined by the earth’s rotation [39]. Nonetheless, this difference does not undermine the meaning of the verse, because the Qur’an employs phenomenal language, that is, language based on human observation of the heavens.

Furthermore, al-Rāzī adds a spiritual dimension to the phrase wa Qur’āna al-fajr by emphasizing the importance of reciting long passages of the Qur’an in the dawn prayer (Ṣalāt al-Fajr), noting that this prayer is “witnessed” by both the angels of the night and the angels of the day [39]. This explanation highlights the interaction between cosmic rhythms and the spiritual grandeur of worship at daybreak. Al-Sha‘rāwī reinforces this aspect by explaining that the choice of the expression Qur’āna al-fajr reflects the harmony between the calmness of nature at the emergence of morning light and the human soul’s readiness to receive the recitation of the Qur’an [41]. From an astronomical perspective, the determination of prayer times based on the sun’s position relative to the horizon demonstrates that Islamic law possesses a strong scientific foundation and is not at odds with modern knowledge [42]. The precision involved in determining the times of Ẓuhr, ʿAṣr, Maghrib, ʿIshāʾ, and Fajr shows that human worship proceeds in perfect harmony with the cosmic order established by Allah.

This demonstrates that the relationship between the sun and prayer times is not merely technical, but also theological. The sun functions as a cosmic sign (āyah kauniyyah) that links celestial phenomena with the rhythm of human worship, giving the impression that prayer is a spiritual response to the order of God’s creation [43]. Thus, al-Rāzī’s interpretation remains contextually relevant, provided that one distinguishes between the text’s phenomenological meaning and modern scientific explanations, allowing the verse to be understood comprehensively without losing its theological and spiritual message.

The interpretation of sunlight as an energy source for animals, as indicated in QS. Ibrāhīm: 33

وَسَخَّرَ لَكُمُ الشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ دَائِبَيْنِۚ وَسَخَّرَ لَكُمُ الَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَار

This verse reflects the integration between tadabbur of cosmic signs (āyāt kauniyyah) and modern scientific findings on ecology and animal physiology. The verse emphasizes that the sun and the moon are subjected by Allah for the benefit of humankind, which implicitly includes all living creatures, including animals [44]. Within the context of tafsir, the movement of the sun is understood as a cosmic mechanism that sustains life, as it provides light, regulates time, and triggers continuous natural processes [39]. This interpretation aligns with modern biological findings which show that sunlight plays a fundamental role in the food chain through photosynthesis, given that plants are the primary producers.

Light intensity is a photometric measure of the amount of light that strikes a surface. Measurements of light intensity in relation to animal life are based on photometric assessments adjusted to human visual perception. The standard unit is lux (lx), equivalent to 1 lumen/m² or 0.08 candela/m². Animal behavior is greatly influenced by light intensity; bright light accelerates daily activity in broiler chickens, whereas dim light is more effective in controlling aggressive behavior and reducing cannibalism [34]. Short-term increases in light intensity can also enhance animal growth and reduce skeletal disorders and metabolic problems.

It can be concluded that sunlight functions as a regulator of animals’ biological rhythms and as a determinant of ecosystem dynamics. The tafsir of āyāt kauniyyah provides a meaningful foundation for understanding the orderliness of Allah’s creation, while modern biology explains the detailed mechanisms that allow life to persist. Both perspectives complement each other and offer a comprehensive understanding that the sun is a vital element in sustaining animal life and maintaining overall ecosystem balance.

Allah SWT says in Q.S. An-Naba’: 13–16:

وَّجَعَلْنَا سِرَاجًا وَّهَّاجًا (13) وَّاَنْزَلْنَا مِنَ الْمُعْصِرٰتِ مَآءً ثَجَّاجًا (14) لِّنُخْرِجَ بِه حَبًّا وَّنَبَاتًا (15) وَّجَنّٰتٍ اَلْفَافًا (16)

When interpreting the phrase sirājan wahhājan, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī emphasizes that the sun is a source of extremely powerful light and heat, and it is this intensity that makes it a primary element for the continuity of life. Al-Rāzī then links the role of the sun to the process of rainfall as described in Allah’s words wa anzalnā mina al-mu‘ṣirāti mā’an thajjājan, explaining that the sun’s heat causes the evaporation of water, the formation of clouds, and finally the descent of abundant, continuously poured water (thajjājan). The term al-mu‘ṣirāt is understood as clouds that are almost “pressed” by the wind until they release their water [39]. Through this rainfall, Allah brings forth three types of vegetation: grains as staple foods for humans, grasses as fodder for animals, and trees that form lush gardens, described by the term alfāfā, meaning dense and intertwined.

This analysis demonstrates a harmony between classical exegetical understandings and contemporary scientific findings: the sun indeed functions as a cosmic “lamp” that provides energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, enabling various biological processes. When al-Rāzī associates the sun’s heat with evaporation, cloud formation, and rainfall, he not only presents a natural cause-and-effect relationship—what is called sunnat al-kausalitas—but also implicitly outlines a scientific framework, although without using modern terminology such as the hydrological cycle.

From a biological perspective, sunlight is the primary factor that triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis within the grana of chloroplasts, in which light energy is converted into chemical energy that is subsequently used to synthesize glucose as the plant’s source of energy [45]. Plant growth and development are complex processes influenced by a combination of various environmental factors, and light is one of the main environmental factors affecting plant growth and development [46]. The connection between water, sunlight, and plant growth described in the verse linukhrija bihi ḥabban wa nabātan wa jannātin alfāfā reflects three categories of vegetation that are also relevant to modern ecological classification—food crops, grasses as animal feed, and trees forming forest ecosystems [47]. The integration between tafsir and scientific findings shows that the Qur’an not only depicts natural phenomena in a spiritual sense but also presents a coherent scientific framework that can be empirically examined.

It is therefore concluded that the sun functions as a central energy source supporting ecological processes, from water evaporation and rainfall formation to photosynthesis that produces food for all living beings. This analysis affirms that sunlight is not merely a metaphorical symbol of life but a functional energy source forming the foundation for the continuity of life on earth.