Physiognomy is a study that seeks to understand an individual's character and personality through the observation of external physical features. Its main concept is the assumption of a direct relationship between outward appearance (physical) and a person's inner character. The term originates from Greek, with "physis" meaning nature and "gnomos" meaning knowledge, and historically developed by emphasizing the fixed forms of the face, as popularized by Johann Caspar Lavater [17]. Initially, physiognomy focused on the analysis of static features, such as bone structure and facial proportions, which were believed to reveal a person's permanent character. However, over time, this concept was then distinguished from pathognomy, which focuses more on dynamic and temporary facial expressions, such as those changes caused by emotions. Therefore, the core of physiognomy lies in the effort to "read" internal conditions that are considered stable through fixed physical signs [17].

In the 16th century Ottoman world, physiognomy, also known as 'ilm al-firasat', was considered a legitimate natural science used to assess a person's inner character through their physical appearance. This discipline was not seen as superstition, but rather as a science classified within the Islamic scholarly tradition, as done by Ibn Sina, as part of the applied natural sciences. For the Ottoman administration, physiognomy held significant instrumental value in matters of state. It was believed to assist the Sultan and ruling elite in selecting officials and members of the elite who possessed superior moral character, thus enabling the realization of justice in the state and maintaining the "Circle of Justice" [18]. This science was divided into two: hikmiyyah physiognomy, which could be learned through experience and study, and shari'iyyah physiognomy, which was a divine gift attained through spiritual purification and moral discipline. Mastery of shari'iyyah physiognomy was believed to bring enlightenment to the ruler, enabling him to "see with the light of God," so that he was not only just in governing but also a moral exemplar.

In the tradition of classical Islamic intellectualism, physiognomy is considered one of the branches of knowledge rooted in Greek heritage and further developed by Muslim scholars. This science is viewed as a tool for understanding a person's character and internal state through external physical signs, and is often associated with other fields such as medicine, astrology, and dream interpretation. Fakhruddin Al-Razi included physiognomy within the framework of natural sciences and humoral theory, which emphasizes the relationship between a person's physical and psychological conditions [19]. The Islamic perspective on physical features reflecting a person's morality is discussed through the approach of physiognomy, which is rooted in the Islamic intellectual tradition. This concept is supported by references from the Qur'an, as stated in Surah Al-Baqarah: 273, which mentions "you will recognize them by their marks (sīmāhum)." This verse is interpreted as the foundation for the belief that outward characteristics can reveal inner essence [20].

The Qur'an explicitly describes the body as a form of symbolic nonverbal communication nine times in different verses. These mentions underscore the significance of body language in communication from an Islamic perspective. Some of the examples cited include facial expressions, hand gestures, and other physical characteristics. Understanding this nonverbal communication can facilitate more effective interactions that are in harmony with religious teachings for Muslims and prevent it from becoming justification for discrimination or even racism. Below are references regarding physical signs found in the Qur'an.

(The punishment will occur) on the Day when there will be faces that are bright and radiant, and there will be faces that are dark and gloomy. As for those whose faces are dark and gloomy, (it will be said to them), “Why did you disbelieve after having believed? Therefore, taste the punishment for your disbelief.” (QS. Ali Imran: 106)

"And his wife (Sarah) was standing, and she smiled (out of joy). So We gave her good news of (the birth of) Isaac, and after Isaac, (the birth of) Jacob." (QS. Hud: 71)

And he (Jacob) turned away from them (his sons) and said, "Oh, my sorrow for Joseph," and his eyes became white with grief, and he was one who suppressed his anguish. (QS. Yusuf: 84)

“And do not turn your face away from people (out of arrogance) and do not walk upon the earth with pride. Indeed, Allah does not like those who are arrogant and boastful.” (QS. Luqman: 18)

“And when it is said to them, ‘Come, so that the Messenger of Allah may ask forgiveness for you,’ they turn their heads away and you see them turning away in arrogance.” (QS. Al-Munafiqun: 5)

"We will mark his nose." (QS. Al-Qalam: 16)

And indeed, those who disbelieve almost made you slip with their eyes when they heard the Qur'an, and they said, "He is truly insane." (QS. Al-Qalam: 51)

"With their eyes cast down, they are overwhelmed by humiliation. That is the day which was always promised to them." (QS. Al-Ma'arij: 44)

"On that day many faces will be radiant, satisfied with their efforts." (QS. Al-Ghasiyah: 8-9)

Verses relevant to the physical as a medium of nonverbal communication indicate that the eyes function as a medium for theophanic vision (tajallī), that is, the capacity to witness Divine manifestations. The eyes do not merely observe physical beauty but also serve as a channel for perceiving the Divine Essence. Moreover, the eyes symbolize spiritual suffering and longing. Tears flowing from the eyes are not merely expressions of worldly sorrow, but also symbols of the great flood of Nūḥ, the parted sea, or heavenly springs such as Zamzam and Kawthar. These tears are often metaphorically described as pearls, oceans, or jewels, representing the spiritual value of suffering and the purification of the soul on the journey toward God. Within the current of this river of tears, there lies an implied journey of purification in which each drop washes away veils of neglect, cleansing the mirror of the heart to reflect the Divine light. Thus, the eyes are not only an organ of vision but also a sacred "text" containing divine secrets, as well as a mirror reflecting the spiritual essence of humanity in its quest for the Creator [20].

The nose is not only understood as a mere anatomical structure, but also as a symbol rich in cultural, historical, and identityrelated meaning. The nose is often considered a "synecdoche of the soul," indicating that it represents or reflects a person's character, personality, and even ethnic background. This affirms that the nose is not just a functional or aesthetic organ, but also a complex and significant marker of identity within cultural and historical contexts [21]. From the perspective of the Qur'an, human body parts often have profound symbolic significance, especially in representing spiritual and ethical values. For instance, the face is frequently depicted as a reflection of religious identity and an individual's commitment to the values of piety. The presence of certain indicators in this area can be interpreted as physical symbols that reveal a person's affiliation with the community of believers as well as their consistency in worship practices. Conversely, other parts of the body can also carry opposite symbolic connotations, illustrating negative behaviors such as arrogance or rejection of truth [21].

His full name is Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Umar bin Husain bin Hasan bin Ali at-Tamimi Al-Bakri At-Tabaristani Al-Razi. He was born on 25th Ramadan 544 AH in the city of Ray, Iran, and passed away on Eid al-Fitr in 606 AH in Herat. He was known as Ibn Al-Khatib Asy-Syafi'i and held the titles of Al-Imam, Fakhruddin, and Syaikhul Islam [22]. Al-Razi wrote more than two hundred books related to medicine, pharmacy, philosophy, music, and various other sciences. He is considered a pioneer in the establishment of experimental science, especially in the fields of medicine and chemistry, due to his deep interest in experimental methodology across the natural sciences. Al-Razi is recognized as "a writer of rare and remarkable productivity, as well as the greatest Islamic physician." In Al-Razi's writings, Fihris Ibn Al-Nadim, the oldest authoritative record, notes 113 major works and 28 minor works by him. His monumental and most important work is Kitab Al Hawi Fi Al-Tibb, also known as Liber Continens, a medical encyclopedia consisting of 25 volumes [23].

Al-Razi is known for his profound criticism of Ibn Sina's thought, which sparked a significant shift in Islamic philosophy in the 12th century. Al-Razi continued the tradition of skepticism pioneered by Imam Al-Ghazali, meticulously re-examining Ibn Sina's ideas. This review was carried out through his works, "Mabāḥis Al-Mashriqiyyah" and "Al-Muḥaṣṣal", which later became the foundation for many subsequent philosophers. Al-Razi's works were used as references to either support or refute Ibn Sina's thought. Al-Razi's influence is clearly evident in the development of illuminationist (Ishraqi) philosophy and later Islamic philosophy. Through his critiques of Ibn Sina, Al-Razi developed his own philosophical system. Al-Razi was not only an opponent but also introduced new ideas, addressing issues concerning reality and knowledge that had previously received little attention [24].

Al-Razi left behind a legacy of knowledge that is exceptionally rich and diverse, making him one of the most renowned scholars in the intellectual history of Islam. His legacy is especially evident in the fields of ushul fiqh and tafsir. His works, such as Al-Mahshul fi 'Ilm Al-Ushul and Mafātihul Ghaib, remain primary references to this day. As previously mentioned, he mastered tafsir, kalam, philosophy, and logic; his tafsir, Mafātihul Ghaib, also integrates linguistic analysis (lughah), theology (kalam), philosophy, and even rational sciences to uncover the meanings of the Qur'an. This approach makes his tafsir highly analytical and critical, similar to the methodology he applied in ushul fiqh [25]. The main characteristics of this tafsir are its critical stance towards taqlid (acceptance of tradition without critique), the use of logical arguments, and its attention to profound theological and philosophical issues [26]. The primary style employed is tafsir bir ra'yi, which falls under the category of commendable rationality (mahmud), wherein Al-Razi examines various issues in great detail and expands his discussions by drawing on multiple disciplines. Although he relied more on reason, he did not entirely disregard tradition or bil ma'tsur, as he still utilized evidence from the Qur'an, Sunnah, as well as the views of the Companions and the Tabi'in to support his interpretations [27].

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the context in which a verse was revealed, a careful investigation of Asbabun Nuzul is essential. By doing so, the underlying historical context can be understood, allowing the message of the verse to be interpreted more clearly and accurately, and to be applied relevantly as long as similar conditions or causes persist [28]. Therefore, this study strategically examines these verses through two monumental works on Asbabun Nuzul, namely the works of Al-Wahidi An-Nisaburi and Imam As-Suyuthi. This crucial step serves as the foundation before moving on to Al-Razi's interpretation in his tafsir Mafātihul Ghaib, with the primary focus on how Al-Razi elaborates that physical characteristics or bodily gestures inherently carry nonverbal communication messages that definitively reflect the personality of the individual possessing those characteristics and gestures.

Gestures have several important and interconnected cognitive functions, primarily by reducing cognitive load and thereby enhancing the efficiency of mental processes. Spontaneous gestures also serve as predictors of readiness, where mismatches between gesture and speech (gesture-speech mismatch) often reveal implicit knowledge or transitions that have not yet been articulated. Gestures actively facilitate memory and learning, both through the production and observation of gestures, which have been shown to improve information retention and knowledge transfer in contexts such as problem-solving. Overall, according to the Gesture for Conceptualization Hypothesis, gestures play a role in supporting conceptualization processes by helping to explore and manipulate spatial-motor information, thereby enriching the process of thinking and speaking [35]. From an interpretive perspective, gestures are viewed as symbolic representations and tools for interpreting meaning, both concrete and abstract [36]. Meanwhile, physiognomy highlights aspects of bodily expression, where gestures become reflections of emotion, identity, and neurological conditions [37].

Al-Razi's involvement in the history of physiognomy is manifested through his contributions to scientific works in the field of medicine. It is noted that Book II of his medical treatise titled Liber ad Almansorem (also known as Kitab al-Mansuri), written in the tenth century, was based on the fundamental theory of physiognomy. This medical work was later translated into Latin in the 1180s, enabling the dissemination of his knowledge of physiognomy to the Western world. Al-Razi's treatise made a significant contribution by integrating the tradition of physiognomy with Galenic medical thought. Al-Razi's role did not lie in the creation of a new science of physiognomy, but rather in the synthesis and application of that knowledge within a systematic medical framework, which in turn influenced the development of this field in the Latin world [38]. Al-Razi's rationality, which integrated health with spirituality, was also applied in his reasoning in interpreting the verses of the Qur'an. Al-Razi's approach to interpreting the Qur'an involved intellectual exegesis, in which he used reason and analysis to understand the sacred text. This method was part of a broader trend in Islamic scholarship that sought to harmonize revealed knowledge with rational inquiry [39].

Based on Al-Razi's interpretation of nine verses from the Qur'an, there is a consistent understanding that the human body, particularly the face, functions as a complex, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional system of nonverbal communication. In QS. Ali Imran: 106, Al-Razi interprets the change in facial color as a visual language that directly communicates spiritual status, where a white face represents joy and the acceptance of mercy, while a black face signifies sorrow and regret. The same principle is reflected in his interpretation of QS. Yusuf: 84, where the "whitening of the eyes" of Prophet Ya'qub is not seen merely as a medical condition, but as a passive canvas that reveals the deepest inner sorrow. Furthermore, in interpreting QS. Luqman: 18 and QS. Al-Munafiqun: 5, Al-Razi asserts that turning one's face away is a nonverbal expression of arrogance that communicates rejection and indifference. Meanwhile, the interpretation of QS. Al-Qalam: 16 regarding the marking on the nose reveals the concept of the body as a "text" that records moral stigma, wherein the most honorable part of the body becomes the very medium to convey the deepest humiliation.

Al-Razi's analysis of these various verses collectively forms a sophisticated theoretical framework on nonverbal communication from an Islamic perspective. In QS. Hud: 70-71, Al-Razi develops the principle that body movements-such as hands not touching foodcan serve as symbolic codes that reveal true identity and divine intent. His interpretation of QS. Al-Qalam: 51 regarding destructive gazes reflects an understanding of the power of transmitting intent through visual contact, which can even have physical effects, as seen in the concept of al-'ain. On the other hand, his interpretation of QS. Al-Ma'arij: 44 regarding bowed heads and QS. Al-Ghashiyah: 8-9 regarding radiant faces demonstrates how body language can be a visual manifestation of positive spiritual states-humility and inner satisfaction. Overall, Al-Razi not only affirms that nonverbal communication in the Qur'an is universal and transcendent, but also that the human body is a divine medium revealing the deepest inner truths, in which every movement, expression, and physical change contains spiritual meaning that can be "read" within the framework of communication between humans and the Creator.

This study adopts the integrative-interconnective paradigm proposed by [40] as its main theoretical framework. This means bringing together various scientific disciplines so that they complement each other. In the context of tafsir (Qur'anic interpretation), the integrative-interconnective approach combines Islamic sciences with general sciences and seeks common ground between the two. The goal is to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of revelation that is relevant to human reality. This theory moves beyond the paradigms of conflict and independence, aiming for a kind of integration that is semi-permeable [40]. In this model, the boundaries between the disciplines of Qur'anic interpretation and physiognomy are no longer viewed as rigid barriers, but rather as semi-permeable membranes that facilitate dialogue, exchange of concepts, and mutual enrichment. The fundamental concept of this paradigm, namely intersubjective testability, requires researchers to test and enrich their understanding of religious texts (objectivity of the text) by integrating perspectives and findings from other disciplines, thus producing a more contextual and relevant understanding.

In the context of this study, the theory of integration is operationalized by synergizing Imam Al-Razi's classical interpretation of "physiognomic signals" in the Qur'an with the framework of contemporary nonverbal communication studies. For example, Al-Razi's interpretation of QS. Ali Imran: 106, which views changes in facial color as a visual expression of spiritual states, and his interpretation of QS. Luqman: 18, which understands turning one's face away as a symbol of arrogance, are used as the foundation for "textual objectivity." These interpretations are then creatively and imaginatively integrated with concepts in nonverbal communication, such as universal facial expressions (Ekman), kinesics (body language), and oculesics (eye language). This integration not only validates the psychological depth found in classical exegesis but also transforms it into a structured and communicable understanding within the discourse of modern communication studies, thereby demonstrating how religion and science can complement and affirm each other [40].

This study then demonstrates that, although they originate from different epistemological traditions, modern physiognomy-which examines the relationship between facial expressions and psychological states-can be productively integrated with Al-Razi's classical interpretation. Al-Razi's interpretation, rich in psychological and spiritual descriptions of bodily expressions, such as the profound sorrow that "whitened" the eyes of Prophet Ya'qub or the inner happiness that "illuminates" the face, finds its resonance in modern scientific findings regarding the close connection between emotions and physiological expressions. The convergence point lies in a shared recognition that the body is not a mute entity, but rather a nonverbal "text" actively communicating the deepest inner states. Thus, this integration does not crudely equate the two disciplines, but instead creates a creative dialectic in which the hermeneutic richness of classical interpretation provides depth of meaning, while the modern scientific framework offers tools to map and analyze the divine "body language" contained in the Qur'an.

Confirmation bias is a cognitive tendency that affects the way a person processes information. Individuals experiencing this bias tend to seek, interpret, and remember information that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses. This phenomenon is not limited to verbal or written information but also extends to the interpretation of physical and nonverbal cues [41]. Stereotypes are a form of excessive generalization applied to certain groups, often based on easily identifiable characteristics such as gender, race, or age. The impact of these stereotypes can be extremely harmful, as they may reinforce existing prejudices and contribute to systemic social injustice. Stereotypes not only affect how people perceive others, but can also influence how individuals see themselves, potentially limiting their aspirations and opportunities in various aspects of life.

Physiognomy, as a practice that seeks to link physical features with a person's character or personality, has faced harsh criticism from the scientific community. This approach, which claims to be able to read a person's inner nature through external appearance, is considered to lack a strong scientific basis. Richard Twine identifies two fundamental weaknesses in physiognomy: representationalism and the rejection of temporality. Representationalism refers to the assumption that physical signs directly reflect a person's internal qualities, a concept considered overly simplistic and unfounded. Meanwhile, the rejection of temporality refers to physiognomy's failure to recognize the dynamic nature of human identity and meaning [4]. As a result, physiognomy is regarded as an overly deterministic approach that is unable to capture the nuance and variability in human nature and behavior.

Therefore, critical thinking skills play a crucial role in objectively evaluating information, thus preventing confirmation bias and stereotypes. However, studies show that the level of critical thinking skills in Indonesia is still categorized as low to moderate, which has the potential to increase the tendency towards biased judgments [42]. Experiential learning activities that focus on race and ethnicity play a crucial role in fostering a deeper understanding of complex social dynamics. This approach enables the identification and analysis of how racism and ethnic prejudice operate in everyday contexts. Through engagement in simulations or case studies that reflect social realities, individuals can understand that racism is not merely an issue of personal attitudes, but is also embedded within institutions and policies. This encourages the development of critical thinking that is essential for challenging the status quo and striving for solutions that are more just and inclusive. Ultimately, experiential learning about race and ethnicity not only enhances knowledge but also motivates action for positive social change [43].

Islamic ethics in evaluating others are explained through the principles of religious moderation, which emphasize justice, responsibility, and honesty. The principle of i'tidal (objectivity and fairness) serves as the main foundation, requiring every judgment to be based on facts and truth, while avoiding subjectivity or prejudice. In addition, the approach of tasamuh (tolerance) teaches respect for differences, while syura (consultation) highlights mutual respect for opinions, polite speech, and a willingness to listen to others without negative tendencies. More broadly, the principle of al-la'un (nonviolence) rejects every form of unjust or harmful judgment, encouraging mutual trust, cooperation, and empathy. The implementation of these values in daily life ensures that judgments of others are not only fair and honest, but also grounded in responsibility for maintaining social harmony [44].