The term catcalling refers to a form of verbal sexual harassment that generally occurs in public spaces. This phenomenon is a manifestation of symbolic violence as understood in Pierre Bourdieu's theory, which is a form of power that is hidden and socially legitimized [40]. In the context of patriarchal culture, the act of catcalling reinforces the symbolic dominance of men over women through language and verbal actions that make the female body a visual object.

According to Gardner [10] catcalling is not just an ordinary comment, but part of a degrading and disturbing "street harassment". This is in line with Fairchild and Rudman's findings that women who experience catcalling experience negative psychological effects such as anxiety, loss of security, and long-term trauma. A study by Fileborn & O'Neill [42] also highlights how verbal harassment creates an intimidating atmosphere that curbs women's participation in public spaces.

Islam views the oral as one of the important instruments that can bring benefits or harms. The Prophet's hadith states that "A true Muslim is one who is saved by his mouth and hands" (HR. Bukhari-Muslim). This shows that communication ethics are not just social norms, but part of Islamic identity.

Ismatullah [7] in his research emphasized that the Qur'an compiles various concepts of communication ethics which are referred to as qaulan sadīdan, qaulan baligha, qaulan layyinan, and qaulan ma'rūfan (QS. Al-Ahzab: 70, QS. Al-Isra': 23, QS. An-Nisa': 63). Each of these terms indicates a form of communication that prioritizes honesty, clarity, gentleness, and kindness. Therefore, any form of communication that insults, mocks, or degrades is not in line with the principles of Qur'anic communication.

The concept of karāmah insāniyyah (human dignity) is a central principle in Islamic ethics. QS. Al-Isra' [17]:70 states that man has been glorified by Allah with the grace of reason, freedom, and moral capacity. In the commentary of Al-Misbah, Quraish Shihab emphasizes that insulting human beings – including through speech – is a form of violation of the glory that Allah gives [43]

Maqāṣid al-syarī'ah, in this case, in particular ḥifẓ al-'irḍ (safeguarding honor) and ḥifẓ al-nafs (safeguarding the safety of the soul), becomes a normative framework that requires the protection of individual dignity. This perspective is in line with the thinking of Jasser Auda who developed a maqāṣid framework based on contemporary social realities.

Classical and contemporary Islamic studies have discussed the position of women in Islam from various sides. However, the theme of symbolic violence, such as catcalling, is still minimally discussed in classical interpretation studies. Efforts such as those made by Quraish Shihab in Tafsir Al-Misbah became pioneers in bridging normative texts with social realities.

Hasan [44] emphasizes that Islam advocates equal moral responsibility between men and women as shown in QS. An-Nahl [16]:97. When women are used as objects of insult in the public sphere, society fails to apply the values of equality and respect taught by Islam.

Catcalling not only impacts women's self-esteem, but also leaves deep psychological trauma. A study by Avezahra [5] revealed that victims experienced anxiety disorders, embarrassment, and even PTSD. Secular approaches generally lead to psychological counseling, but for religious societies such as Indonesia, spirituality-based approaches are more acceptable and effective.

In the context of Islam, the values of sabr (patience), taqwa (piety), and dzikrullah can be elements of spiritual restoration. Studies by Mohiuddin et al. (2020) show that Islamic spirituality can be an important part of trauma intervention, particularly through a community approach.

Strengthening Qur'an-based moral education is one of the main solutions in tackling the catcalling culture. Fadhilah & Rohmaniyah (2023) emphasize the importance of a gender justice-based educational curriculum in Islamic educational institutions. Islamic boarding schools and madrassas can be a strong basis for cultural change.

Meanwhile, social media-based da'wah also plays a big role in spreading Qur'anic values about communication ethics. Narrative sourced from QS. Al-Hujurat [49]:11 and hadith about the prohibition of hurting others can be used as effective educational content among young Muslims.

This literature review shows that the phenomenon of catcalling can be approached integrally through Islamic concepts such as karāmah insāniyyah, maqāṣid al-syarī'ah, Qur'anic communication ethics, and spirituality-based recovery approaches. This addition of literature strengthens the theoretical basis of your article and makes it more comprehensive to address academic and social challenges in a balanced manner.

Catcalling is a form of harassment in public spaces that is usually characterized by unwanted comments, body movements, or whistling, and is often directed at women and other groups. This action cannot be considered as praise, but rather as behavior that degrades and objectifies a person. The main problem in catcalling lies not only in the content of the speech, but in the implied power relations and the psychological impact it causes. Catcalling positions the victim as if they have to submit to the perpetrator, thus reinforcing the notion that the perpetrator has power or domination over them [4]

The results of this study show that catcalling is expressly contrary to the principles of Islamic ethics as stated in the Qur'an and hadith. QS. Al-Isra' [17]:70 affirms the principle of karāmah insāniyyah (human dignity) as a natural right inherent in every individual. In Tafsir Al-Misbah, Quraish Shihab explains:

"This verse begins with Allah's oath, namely with 'qad' (قَدْ) which affirms the glory of man (Adam's descendants) by being blessed with various advantages. A beautiful body, the ability to speak and think, and knowledge, are proof of human privilege. Freedom of choice is also given, allowing them to determine the path of life. Allah glorifies man by providing various conveniences. They were given access to explore the land and seas by means of transportation, both created directly by God and created by His inspiration [43]

This explanation strengthens the argument that the act of catcalling, which degrades the dignity and freedom of individuals, especially women, is a form of violation of human dignity as outlined in Divine revelation. Thus, the response to this phenomenon is not only social or legal, but also spiritual and theological.

QS. Al-Hujurat [49]:11 conveys the prohibition of mocking, reproaching, and calling others by bad nicknames. In Tafsir Al-Misbah, Quraish Shihab explains that:

"The word yakhsar (يَسْخَرْ) means to make fun of, that is, to mention the shortcomings of others with the aim of laughing at them, either by speech, deeds, or behavior... This is a form of indoctrination and persecution."

This explanation confirms that verbal insults, including in the form of gestures or sarcasm, are prohibited actions because they injure the honor of fellow human beings. This verse is particularly relevant to the phenomenon of catcalling, which is a form of verbal ridicule with sexual nuances and is carried out openly in public spaces. In addition to violating the norms of decency, the act is also contrary to Islamic teachings on respect and brotherhood between human beings.

QS. an-Nahl [16]:97 provides a solid foundation for understanding the position of Islam in encouraging women's active participation in ethical and dignified social life. This verse uses the word "min zakar wa untsa' which affirms the principle of gender equality and juxtaposes it with the word "charity" which shows the importance of charity. Not only in the spiritual dimension but also in constructive social contributions. The word ‫ِح"‬ ‫ال‬ َ ‫"ص‬ (shâlih) in the verse is understood as a good, harmonious, and beneficial action, which maintains and improves social conditions so that they continue to function in accordance with the values of goodness.

In the context of the phenomenon of catcalling, which reflects immoral verbal behavior and damages the dignity of women, this interpretation shows that the act is contrary to the meaning of righteous deeds. Quraish Shihab explained that pious deeds are not only maintaining existing values, but also repairing something that is broken, or even improving the value and function of a social condition. Therefore, the behavior of catcalling, which actually damages the comfort of public spaces and disturbs the dignity of women, is the antithesis of the pious deeds commanded by the Qur'an. Furthermore, the explicit affirmation of men and women in this verse is a criticism of patriarchal norms that often underestimate women's voices and participation in public spaces. This verse also encourages women to play an active role in building society, including in voicing their rejection of forms of verbal harassment such as catcalling. Thus, the interpretation of QS. an-Nahl [16]:97 provides a theological justification that efforts to combat verbal abuse are part of pious deeds and equal social-spiritual responsibilities between men and women.

The hadith of the Prophet Muhammad which reads A Muslim is a person who other Muslims are saved by his mouth and hands (HR. Bukhari-Muslim) is also an important foundation in evaluating catcalling. This hadith makes it clear that hurtful verbal behavior, including verbal sexual harassment, is contrary to the character of a true Muslim. Even in Muslim hadith no. 6925 it is explained that verbal communication can be a means of adultery when used to convey words that have a nuance of orgasm. Therefore, catcalling is also categorized as oral adultery, which Muslims should avoid.

When compared to previous studies, this research approach shows excellence in integrating Islamic spiritual values and contemporary social phenomena. Most of the psychological and sociological literature on catcalling, such as those of Avezahra and Putri, highlights the psychological impact of the victim without providing a spiritual foundation as a form of value intervention. In fact, the maqashid al-shari'ah approach, especially the principle of hifzh al-'irdh (protection of honor), provides a strong theological framework for understanding the importance of maintaining human dignity, including in public communication.

In the context of tafsir, Tafsir Al-Misbah by Quraish Shihab has the advantage of not only providing a linguistic interpretation of the verses of the Qur'an, but also bridging the sacred text with the social reality of modern society. This is different from classical interpretations that tend to be normative. Quraish Shihab consistently emphasizes the aspect of dialogical ethics, as in the interpretation of QS. Al-Hujurat [49]:11, where he highlights that any form of humor, even one wrapped in humor, can be a tool of insult that hurts brotherhood [43] On the other hand, many studies of Islamic law and gender tend to address gender-based violence in the structural realm, but have not optimally integrated the theological-ethical aspects of the hadith and the Qur'an in formulating preventive and educational measures. This research fills this gap by linking the dimensions of law, interpretation, and social advocacy simultaneously.

These findings have significant implications both scientifically and practically. Scientifically, this study reinforces the idea that the interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith can be developed applicatively to respond to contemporary social challenges, including the issue of verbal violence such as catcalling. This encourages the development of contextual thematic interpretation approaches, and opens up a space for dialogue between Islamic studies and social sciences and law. In addition, the principles of karāmah insāniyyah and hifzh al-'irdh can be a new theoretical foundation in the development of Islamic-based public communication ethics. These findings also reinforce the narrative that Islam not only rejects verbal violence from a legal and ethical point of view, but also invites every individual, both male and female, to make efforts to improve and protect human values. The concept of righteous charity in the Quraish Shihab tafsir expands the understanding of Islamic ethics into the realm of constructive social action, making the rejection of catcalling a tangible form of implementation of the Qur'anic values that are participatory, just, and progressive.

Practically, this research encourages the formation of an educational system that makes spiritual values the foundation of character education, especially in forming a culture of polite communication. The concepts of qaulan baligha and qaulan layyinan taught by the Qur'an can be integrated into religious education curricula, personality training, and community empowerment programs to build collective awareness of the importance of maintaining the oral and dignity of others [6] Moreover, these findings also contribute to public policy, especially in designing regulations that are not only repressive, but also value-based preventive. By using tafsir and hadith as ethical references, this approach offers a middle ground between rigid legal formulation and a permissive patriarchal culture of verbal abuse. Overall, these results show that catcalling is not just a legal or social issue, but also an ethical and spiritual one. Thus, countermeasures require synergy between the normative approach of sacred texts and social advocacy based on Islamic values. This approach is the main advantage and contribution of this research.

The results of interviews with a number of women in urban areas of Indonesia show that catcalling has a serious and multi-layered psychological impact. In the short term, victims experience sudden discomfort, fear, and anxiety when faced with verbal abuse. Furthermore, the long-term effects include psychological trauma such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, social anxiety disorder, and loss of security in public spaces [47] Many victims report increased excessive vigilance, avoiding certain routes, and limiting outdoor activities, even during the day.

Some respondents said that they began to doubt their self-esteem and body comfort as a result of repeated sexual comments from strangers. This effect not only disrupts emotional balance, but also damages self-image and triggers shame, anger, or guilt. Symptoms of internalization of stigma were also identified, where victims feel that they are the cause of the harassment, for example because of certain clothes or body expressions. This reflects the symptoms of secondary victimization, which is a condition in which the victim feels blamed by society for what happened to them.

Avina and O'Donohue, in their study, support that verbal abuse such as catcalling is a form of psychological violence that has an impact equivalent to physical or sexual violence [48] Verbal disorders can cause PTSD symptoms such as traumatic flashbacks, hyperarousal, and avoidant behaviors that interfere with social and emotional functioning. This study also showed a link between verbal abuse and social anxiety disorder. Djudiyah [3] noted that many victims avoid public activities such as riding public transportation or walking for fear of being harassed again. This is in line with Davidson's findings [16], which stated that catcalling contributes to an increase in social phobia among young urban women.

The main advantage of this research is the strengthening of the local dimension through direct interviews with victims in various major cities of Indonesia, which enriches the global literature with the socio-cultural context of Indonesia. This includes a culture of shame, religious stigma, and permissive norms towards perpetrators, which form patterns of social acceptance of verbal abuse. Nevertheless, the spiritual recovery dimension is also important to underline as an integral part of trauma coping strategies. In the context of Islam, the practice of dhikr, prayer, and involvement in the Islamic community can strengthen the psychological resilience of the victim and provide a more holistic space for recovery. Values such as sabr (patience), taqwa (piety), and karāmah insāniyyah (human dignity) are not only normative references, but also a source of inner strength for the victim in restoring self-esteem and social trust. This study recommends the integration of spiritual approaches into communitybased psychosocial recovery services, such as mosque-based counseling, Islamic support groups, and public education on the protection of human dignity in a religious perspective.

By combining scientific and Islamic approaches, this study shows that catcalling is not only a violation of social ethics and patriarchy, but also a violation of human and spiritual values. Therefore, efforts to overcome it need to go beyond the legal aspect alone and include the restoration of dignity, victim assistance, and public culture reform based on the values of justice, compassion, and respect for others.

This research reveals that one of the most promising approaches in preventing the phenomenon of catcalling is through strengthening Islamic spirituality which is integrated in moral education and ethical communication. The findings show that the internalization of Qur'anic values that emphasize honor, manners, and respect for others, can form the character of a society that rejects all forms of verbal harassment in public spaces. Moral education, especially through the Tarbiyah Islamiyyah approach, plays an important role in shaping the moral consciousness of individuals from an early age. In this context, Islamic educational institutions such as pesantren, madrasas, and public schools with religious curricula, become strategic mediums to instill the values of hifzh al-'irdh (maintaining honor) and hifzh al-nafs (maintaining the safety of life) as sharia maqasid that must be maintained [49]

In this context, Islamic educational institutions such as the Darunnajah Islamic Boarding School in Jakarta and Madrasah Mu'allimaat Muhammadiyah in Yogyakarta have implemented a maqaṣid al-shari'ah-based curriculum that emphasizes the values of ḥifẓ al-'irḍ (maintaining honor) and ḥifẓ al-nafs (maintaining the safety of life). In the Darunnajah Islamic Boarding School, for example, moral education and muamalah jurisprudence are integrated with discussions of contemporary issues such as digital ethics and public communication manners. Meanwhile, at Madrasah Mu'allimaat, gender awareness training and character development are developed in extracurricular activities based on thematic interpretation. These two institutions show that formal education based on Qur'anic values can be an initial bulwark in the prevention of abusive behavior.

In addition to formal education, the role of the Muslim family and community is crucial in creating a culture of polite communication. Interviews with community leaders and women activists in urban Muslim communities show that family da'wah and the habit of adabiyyah communication in the home environment are able to instill the values of politeness and self-control in children, especially adolescent boys. This strategy is considered more effective when accompanied by example and direct supervision from parents, teachers, and local religious leaders [21]. states that spiritual education not only teaches religious rituals, but also internalizes the values of gender justice, respect for others, and the importance of maintaining human honor and dignity. This study strengthens these findings by showing that internalizing Qur'anic values through education can prevent the formation of toxic masculinity behaviors that are at the root of catcalling.

In the context of social advocacy, Fileborn & Trott [42] explain that feminist activism has been successful in driving social change through public campaigns and legal regulation. This research expands on this approach by integrating Islamic spiritual values as a normative basis in public advocacy. Digital campaigns and social media preaching that use Qur'anic narratives about the ethics of speaking and the prohibition of hurting others, have proven to be more effective in reaching Muslim communities that are still tied to religious authorities. This is the strength of this approach because it is able to combine normative and advocacy aspects in one cohesive socioreligious strategy. Another advantage is the proposed policy based on sharia maqasid. This approach is not simply legalistic, but offers a policy model that emphasizes the protection of the dignity and safety of individuals comprehensively. The integration of maqasid in public policy allows the creation of regulations that are not only repressive to the perpetrators, but also preventive through education and character development of citizens.

The scientific implication of these findings is the need to reposition the role of Islamic spirituality in the discourse on gender violence prevention. So far, the study of gender violence has focused heavily on legal and sociological approaches, while religious aspects are often positioned as a inhibiting factor because they are interpreted conservatively. This research shows that when interpreted progressively and contextually, Islamic teachings actually become a transformative force in shaping gender-fair social behavior and communication manners. Practically, these findings support the importance of integrating gender awareness curricula in Islamic education. This curriculum not only includes the teaching of classical jurisprudence, but also the strengthening of Qur'anic values such as the prohibition of talmizu (mockery), the recommendation of qaulan baligha and qaulan layyinan, as well as respect for human kindness. The implementation of this curriculum must be supported by teacher and speaker training, so that these values not only become cognitive doctrines, but also social practices that live in daily life.

Furthermore, the linkage between these results and previous findings confirms that catcalling prevention cannot be done sectorally. Synergy between spiritual, educational, and advocacy approaches is needed. Public culture reform, social media campaigns, digital da'wah, and public policy advocacy must move in tandem to create sustainable social change. Thus, prevention strategies based on Islamic spirituality not only form moral individuals, but also create a social order that upholds gender dignity and justice.

The implications of this study also include the importance of strengthening a community approach based on Islamic spirituality as a collective means in building a culture of mutual respect in public spaces. As revealed in field interviews, many victims feel they do not have a safe place to tell their stories or seek support. Therefore, the development of a support group based on the mosque community or the taklim council can be an alternative solution that is affordable and culturally relevant. Such initiatives can facilitate spiritual assistance, women's rights education, and safe spaces for psychosocial recovery.

In addition, the results of this study show a new collective consciousness among the younger generation of Muslims who reject patriarchal culture and symbolic violence. Digital movements such as anti-catcalling campaigns on social media that quote verses from the Qur'an and hadith show that Islamic narratives can be used progressively to deconstruct permissive social norms against harassment. The use of religious language as a basis for advocacy makes communication ethical messages more acceptable and has strong moral legitimacy in a religious society.

Furthermore, this approach encourages the recontextualization of Islamic da'wah in contemporary social justice issues. Da'wah is no longer only understood as the transmission of ritual teachings, but also as an effort for value-based social transformation. By referring to the verses on qaulan layyinan and karāmah insāniyyah, dai and ustazah can act as agents of change who voice the importance of respect for others in the public sphere. An empathy-based da'wah strategy, not just indoctrination, is key in targeting young and urban groups who are more resistant to rigid normative narratives.

In the context of Indonesia's religious and communal Muslim society, spiritual community-based approaches such as mosques, taklim assemblies, or recitation groups have great potential as a safe space for women victims of catcalling. Many women who experience verbal abuse not only suffer psychological wounds, but also lose social trust, a sense of security, and even a previously strong religious identity. In this case, the spiritual community plays an important role not only as an institution of worship, but also as a space for recovery with divine and collective nuances.

These spaces can be places to build women's solidarity, open dialogue between members, and instill Qur'anic values such as taʿāwun (mutual help), karāmah insāniyyah (human dignity), and rahmah (compassion). As revealed by Effendy, mosques are not only a center of ritual worship, but also a community center that is able to foster social awareness and liberation from injustice. In this context, spiritual communities that are open to issues of symbolic and gender violence can facilitate education, spiritual mentoring, and Qur'anic ethical advocacy in response to catcalling.

Furthermore, this community can also be a pioneer in building a religious narrative that sides with the victim and rejects the normalization of verbal violence. Ustaz and ustazah who are active in the community can insert sermon or study materials that emphasize the value of qaulan karīman (noble words) and the prohibition of verbal mischief. Thus, this spiritual approach not only restores inwardly, but also expands the field of Islamic da'wah that is relevant to contemporary social realities.