Wasatiyyah, as defined by Mohammad Hashim Kamali is an ethical virtue emphasizing moderation and balance within Islamic theology and ethics. It is not exclusive to Islam but is appreciated across various global traditions. Wasatiyyah is seen as crucial to fostering harmony, particularly following events like the September 2011 attacks, which spurred Muslim leaders to address it and signify cancelling inter-civilizational dialogue. Kamali underscores moderation as central to Islamic thought, influencing both spiritual and socio-political dimensions of the faith [25] .

Dean C. Tipps emphasizes that the concept of "modernization" as it is understood today gained prominence in the 1960s within American and, to a lesser extent, international social science discourse. Despite its rapid adoption, the term lacks a universally accepted definition, with numerous alternative interpretations proliferating. Tipps observes that the widespread appeal of "modernization" does not stem from its conceptual clarity or precision but from its ability to evoke broad, generalized images of the transformative social changes associated with industrialization and the emergence of the nation-state during the late 18th and 19th centuries. These evocative images have lent the concept significant influence, such that the existence of a phenomenon termed "modernization" has been largely uncontested. While debates persist regarding how modernization should be conceptualized, both critics and proponents generally agree on the utility of the concept itself, focusing instead on refining its definition [26] .

According to the study by Mohammad Redzuan Othman and Mashitah Sulaiman, Wasatiyyah defined by Datuk Seri Dr. Abdullah Md Zin, the Prime Minister's Religious Advisor, as a holistic approach to human capital, societal, and national development in Malaysia, rooted in moderate and balanced Islamic practices. Abdullah emphasizes that a "moderate nation" balances physical (Jasadiyah), spiritual (Ruhiyyah), and intellectual (Aqliyah) needs, supported by Quranic verses like al-Maidah 77, which condemns extremism. Drawing from Yusuf al-Qaradawi's term 'al-ghuluw' (fanaticism), Wasatiyyah seeks to promote centrist Islamic thought and avoid excessiveness in religious practice [27] .

Al- ‘Ulama Warasatul Anbiya refers to the scholarly tradition of leadership where Islamic scholars (‘Ulama) embody a balanced and moderate approach to leadership as inheritors of the prophetic legacy. According to Sumarto and Ahamad Faosiy Ogunbado, this leadership style is characterized by effective management of emotional and spiritual intelligence, focusing on moderation (Tawassuth) between extremism and liberalism. This principle ensures that leadership in Islam remains adaptable and accepted across diverse contexts, reflecting the Quranic and Hadith emphasis on balanced, principled conduct.

Al-'Ulama Warasatul Anbiya refers to the concept that Islamic scholars (Ulama) are the heirs of the Prophets entrusted with preserving and interpreting Islamic teachings. According to modern scholars Musa Umar Yakasai and Tijjani Muhammad, the Ulama Council, which blends traditional and modern scholars, plays a crucial role in issuing fatwas, setting policies, and integrating Shariah within organizations. Their leadership, rooted in sincerity and integrity, ensures alignment between Islamic principles and societal governance, emphasizing the importance of ethical standards and adaptation to external conditions.

Ibn Taymiyya's strict adherence to the Qur'an and Sunna forms a foundational perspective on Al-'Ulama Warasatul Anbiya and Wasatiyyah. He emphasized that the proper use of 'Aql (reason) is to understand Islam as practised by the Prophet and his companions, rather than reinterpreting or questioning divine attributes, thus preserving theological purity. This underscores the 'Ulama's role as inheritors of prophetic leadership (Warasatul Anbiya), tasked with safeguarding the faith against deviant sects and innovations [28] .

In terms of Wasatiyyah (moderation), Ibn Taymiyya advocates for balanced theological leadership, where the ‘Ulama upholds Islam's core tenets uncompromisingly while addressing contemporary societal challenges. This moderation allows the ‘Ulama to navigate between rigid conservatism and excessive liberalism, ensuring their relevance and influence. By defending orthodox Sunni beliefs and rejecting speculative philosophy, Ibn Taymiyya frames the ‘Ulama as essential leaders, guiding Muslim societies in both spiritual and worldly matters. His vision reinforces their pivotal role in maintaining stable and harmonious Islamic governance [29].

This book, authored by Jasser Auda (2008), explores the fundamentals of Islamic law (Uṣūl Al-Fiqh) as a cohesive system, analyzed through the lens of systems theory and Islamic theology. The discussion revolves around key features such as cognitive nature, wholeness, openness, interrelated hierarchy, multi-dimensionality, and purposefulness. Auda delves into the theological foundations of various Islamic groups, comparing scriptural and radical fundamentalists, and highlighting the different approaches taken by scholars like Al-Sadr, Al-Juwaynī, and Al-Shāṭibī. He further examines the principle of causation in Islamic theology, contrasting the views of Muʿtazilīs, Ashʿarites, and Māturīdīs, while advocating for a holistic and systems-based approach to contemporary theological renewal [30].

According to Muhammad Fawwaz bin Muhammad Yusoff, ethical behavior is deeply rooted in Qur'anic teachings and stories from hadith and accounts of the companions, which serve as a form of Qur'anic exegesis. Prophetic stories, such as those in Ahmad ibn Muhammad 'al-Tha'labi's 'Ara'is al-Majalis fi Qisas al-Anbiya,' provided ethical standards and reinforced the truth of the Qur'an. Al-Ghazali emphasized that "knowledge of the stories" in the Qur'an occupies a significant place within the broader scope of Qur'anic sciences. For him, knowledge ultimately leads to understanding God, with 'Ilm Al-Kalam (theology) and Fiqh (jurisprudence) furthering this pursuit. This relationship between storytelling and knowledge illustrates how narratives convey deeper intellectual and spiritual understanding [31] .

Md Nazrul Islam and Md Saidul Islam highlight that according to al-Qaradawi, Islamic 'Shura' (consultation) closely aligns with democratic principles, or that democratic ideals reflect the essence of 'Shura'. Al-Qaradawi also argues that 'Shari'ah' protects against power abuses by institutionalizing consultation, thus preventing arbitrary rule. Early modernist thinkers such as al-Tahtawi, al-Tunisi, al-Afghani, Abduh, and Rida, along with contemporary scholars like al-Qaradawi, al-Turabi, Ghannouchi, Gulen, Ramadan, Khan, Masmoudi, and Safi, all maintain that Islam and democracy are not inherently incompatible. Al-Qaradawi explicitly rejects the notion that democracy contradicts Islam, asserting that such claims stem from a misunderstanding of both Islam and democracy [32] .

In his work, Annison Harry highlights the significance of Wasatiyyah (moderation), as elaborated by Mohammad Hashim Kamali. Kamali emphasizes that moderation is essential for individual moral conduct and shapes the identity of communities and nations, especially within the Muslim Ummah. Kamali ties Wasatiyyah to Islamic jurisprudence and Maqasid al-Shariah (higher objectives of Islam), stressing that moderation underpins Islamic principles like justice, renewal, and reform. Kamali draws from scholars such as Muhammad Abduh and Yusuf al-Qaradawi, suggesting that Wasatiyyah can guide Muslim and global discourse in tackling misinformation about Islam [33].

Abdul Rashid Moten highlights Tun Dr. Mahathir's Wasatiyyah approach, blending Islamic governance with modernization through initiatives like the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983, integrating Islamic and contemporary knowledge. Mahathir's hybrid economic model, combining Islamic and capitalist elements, led to the founding of Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad and Syarikat Takaful Malaysia Berhad in 1983 and 1985, promoting Shari'ah-compliant finance. His "assimilation of Islamic values" policy, launched in 1981, instilled values like cleanliness, efficiency, and trustworthiness in governance. The Halal certification system and the Malaysian Institute of Islamic Understanding (IKIM) further strengthened Islamic influence in daily life and public policy.

The 1744 alliance between Muhammad Ibn Saud and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab exemplifies the merging of religion and politics in Islamic governance. Ibn Saud's wife and brothers first accepted Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's message of 'Tawhid' (the oneness of God), prompting Ibn Saud to support the cause. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab promised that God would grant him rule over Najd if Ibn Saud promoted 'Tawhid' and eliminated 'Shirk' (polytheism) and 'Jahl' (ignorance). Sealed by mutual loyalty, this partnership divided responsibilities: Ibn Abd al-Wahhab handled religious matters, while Ibn Saud focused on political and military leadership. This collaboration laid the foundation for the first Saudi state and illustrates how religious and political leadership can collaborate to achieve mutual goals [34].

In his study, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman highlighted the significant role of the 'Ulama' in the Islamization process of the Malay world, contributing to their enduring authority and influence in the region. The spread of Islam was closely tied to Muslim traders who, along with teaching the religion, established Mosques and Surau (small mosques in Malaysia). Many of these 'Ulama were followers of Sufism, which allowed for a more flexible approach to interacting with local animist and Hindu-Buddhist traditions. This flexibility, seen in accepting practices like the 'Slametan' (a feast following prayers), helped ease the transition to Islam. The 'Ulama also adapted the concept of divine kingship, enhancing the sanctity of Malay rulers by incorporating Islamic prayers and rituals into royal ceremonies, thereby maintaining the traditional aura of the king while aligning it with Islamic principles. Their influence, shaped by al-Ghazalian ideas, is evident in classical treatises on governance like 'Taj-Us-Salatin,' which emphasized loyalty to rulers within an Islamic framework [35] .

In Indonesia, the role of the 'Ulama in political governance exemplifies the principles of 'Al-'Ulama Warasatul Anbiya' and 'Wasatiyyah' (moderation), as Susetyo and Fauzi highlighted. The key milestones include establishing the first 'Ulama Council in West Java in 1958, the central Ulama Council in 1962, and the official formation of the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) in 1975. MUI unites both conservative and liberal Islamic groups, serving as a central authority for issuing fatwas, guiding Muslims, and promoting religious harmony. During the Aceh Sultanate era, 'Ulama held judicial power alongside political and legislative authorities, shaping governance by integrating Islamic principles with customary laws. Today, MUI reflects 'Ulama's successful involvement in addressing societal challenges, balancing traditional values with modernity, and ensuring that theological leadership remains a cornerstone of governance through moderation and moral guidance.

According to Abū al-Hasan Alī b. Muḥammad b. Habīb Al-Māwardī (972) Islamic political theology offers a framework that integrates religious principles with governance, emphasizing justice, consultation (Shura), and accountability. Central to this theology are theories of Islamic leadership, such as the caliphate (Khilafah), which highlights the role of the leader as the vicegerent of God (Khalifah), entrusted with upholding divine laws. Another critical concept is 'Wilayah,' where leadership is seen as a duty to protect the welfare of the people and ensure the proper implementation of Islamic principles. In this context, leadership is political but also moral and spiritual, reflecting the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) model of governance, which combines authority with compassion, humility, and service to the community. These principles remain highly relevant to modern leadership, guiding Muslim leaders to balance power with ethical responsibility, promote social justice, and make decisions that serve the common good [36] .

According to Ibn Taymiyyah's perspective on Islamic political governance, authority, and government are essential for adequately regulating society and enforcing religious duties. He argues that religion cannot thrive without governance, as the fulfilment of crucial Islamic responsibilities-such as commanding good and forbidding evil-requires the presence of power and authority. Ibn Taymiyyah emphasizes the need for governance to protect the oppressed, administer legal punishments, and uphold public order by the principles of Shariah. His concept of 'Siyasah Shariyah' (governance according to Shariah) underscores that leadership must be rooted in divinely revealed law, ensuring that all governmental actions align with Islamic legal and moral standards [37] .

According to Reza, Al-Mawardi's perspective illustrates the complementary nature of Fiqh and Siyasah within Islamic law, treating them as interconnected yet distinct domains. Al-Mawardi differentiated between the theoretical prohibitions of Fiqh, where torture is forbidden, and the practical allowances of Siyasah, where rulers were permitted to use torture as a means of governance. This distinction underscores how Islamic law, through the doctrine of Siyasah Sharia, accommodates the practical demands of statecraft, even when these demands diverge from the ethical ideals upheld in Fiqh. Such a framework reveals the duality in Islamic jurisprudence, where religious ideals and practical governance sometimes operate under different rules [38] .

As Ismail Abdullah studied Ibn Taymiyyah on Maqasid al-Shariah, the higher objectives of Islamic law play a crucial role in shaping Islamic governance and leadership. The primary objectives of Maqasidin include the protection of religion (Din), life (Nafs), intellect (Aql), progeny (Nasl), and property (Mal). These objectives provide a holistic framework for governance that ensures human well-being and justice. In political leadership, applying Maqasid al-Shariah means that policies and decisions should align with these universal principles, ensuring that they comply with Islamic law and enhance human dignity and societal welfare. For example, in modern contexts, Maqasid-driven leadership would prioritize education, healthcare, economic equity, and the protection of human rights while navigating the complexities of contemporary governance through the lens of Islamic ethical values. Thus, Maqasid al-Shariah helps leaders develop policies that harmonize society's spiritual, social, and material needs [39] .

In a historical context, as Ali highlighted, the practical application of law by rulers often diverged from the strictures of Fiqh. For example, Al-Mawardi's sanctioning of torture for rulers reflected a pragmatic approach to governance, particularly during times of political instability. This pragmatic approach was further developed by later scholars like Ibn Taymiyya, who permitted torture in investigative contexts, aligning with contemporary European practices. In contrast, scholars such as Al-Ghazzali, who focused more on integrating law with spirituality and ethics, maintained a strict prohibition against torture. These differing views illustrate the complex interplay between theological leadership and governance in Islamic history, informing the broader discourse on Al-Ulama Warasatul Anbiya and Wasatiyyah.

Mohammad Hashim Kamali highlights the crucial role of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah in leadership and theology, particularly in political governance. He notes that leadership is a religious imperative, and establishing a system of rule is among the Maqasid (higher objectives) of Shari'ah. However, throughout Islamic history, political leadership has not always been guided by the ethical norms of Islam as envisioned by Siyasah shar'iyyah (Shari'ah-oriented polity). Kamali emphasizes that the purpose of the hadith, which calls for the protection of Muslim unity and penalizes treason, should be understood through the Maqasidi approach, which focuses on the objectives rather than a strict 'Illah-based interpretation. He also reflects on al-Shatibi's use of induction (Istiqra') to identify Maqasid, which can extend to broader values like human rights and environmental protection. Kamali suggests shifting toward Maqasid-based leadership requires innovative leadership and a supportive institutional framework [40] .

The study by Elmi Bin Baharuddin and Zainab Binti Ismail emphasizes the foundational role of leadership in a Spiritual Governance Model, underpinned by Hikmah (wisdom), Taqwa (God-consciousness), and Amanah (trust). Al-Mawardi categorizes leadership responsibilities into Kifayat Shar'i (obligations prescribed by Islamic law, such as funeral prayers) and Kifayat Ghair Al-Shar'i (responsibilities not explicitly legislated but necessary due to societal needs, such as medical science). This division reflects the dynamic role of leadership in governance, ensuring that religious and practical obligations are balanced [41] .

Allah said in the Qur'an: "Oh, you who believe! Obey Allah, the Messenger and those charged with authority among you. If you differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Messenger" (Qur'an 4:59).

Prayer, as outlined in Surah Al-Ankabut (29:45), is central to personal spiritual practice, guiding individuals in fulfilling their religious duties. Al-Mawardi also links verse 53 of Surah Yusuf [12] to the human inclination toward sinful desires, urging leaders and individuals to cultivate strong character and prioritize spiritual integrity over material wealth. Ibn Hajar underscores that true wealth lies in spiritual contentment, while al-Hashimi highlights the importance of gratitude, patience, and humility as essential virtues when dealing with material gains, grounding individuals in a balanced approach to wealth [41] .

There is another verse in the Holy Qur'an where Allah emphasizes that a fair and effective punishment is an essential aspect of justice. This is linked to the fixed penalties prescribed by God and the responsibilities associated with His rights. Al-Mawardi further explains that Al-Ruh (the spirit) relates to Allah's affairs, including the Qur'an, the angel Gabriel, Prophet Isa, the Day of Judgment, and the human spirit. He connects the heart (Al-Qalb) to reason and intellect, as described in Surah Al-Qaf (50:37), where the heart is a place for common sense and self-reflection (Al-Nafs). Surah Al-Ra'd (13:28) highlights how believers' hearts find tranquillity through the remembrance of Allah-through practising faith, recalling divine blessings, reflecting on God's promises, and valuing the Qur'an [41] .

"Indeed, Allah commands you to render trust to whom they are due and when you judge between people to judge with justice. Excellent is that which Allah instructs you. Indeed, Allah is ever Hearing and Seeing" (Qur'an 4:58)

The Spiritual Governance Model, as framed by Ibn Taymiyyah in 'al-Siyāsah al-sharʿiyya' and further examined by Caterina Bori (2016), revolves around core principles such as Hikmah (Wisdom), 'Taqwa' (God-consciousness), and 'Amanah' (Trust). Bori's study highlights how Ibn Taymiyyah anchors his political thought in Qur'an 4:58, emphasizing the obligations of rulers (Wilāya) to return trust (Amānāt) and to rule with fairness (ʿAdl). According to Ibn Taymiyyah, the primary duty of those in authority is to uphold these principles, as they form the foundation of just governance (Siyāsah). He stresses that public offices and wealth are distinct forms of trust, with leaders obligated to manage them responsibly. Bori expands on this by exploring Ibn Taymiyyah's argument that the conduct of rulers influences the behavior of the general population, underscoring the link between moral leadership and social order. This governance model ties leadership's ethical and spiritual obligations to divine principles, asserting that the ruler's commitment to justice is essential for ensuring the obedience and righteousness of the community [42] .

In modern times, scholars like Yusuf al-Qaradawi and Jasser Auda have built upon these foundational theories, incorporating contemporary understandings of governance and public welfare. Al-Qaradawi's views on moderation reflect the Wasatiyyah principle, balancing between extremes in leadership while ensuring adherence to Islamic ethics. Jasser Auda's contribution to the understanding of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah further emphasizes the need for leadership to be dynamic, adapting to changing contexts while upholding the core objectives of Shari'ah-protection of faith, life, intellect, progeny, and wealth.

Exploring theological leadership and Wasatiyyah (moderation) in political governance through the lens of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah reveals a holistic approach that aligns ethical leadership with the more significant objectives of Islamic law. Classical scholars such as Al-Mawardi, Ibn Taymiyyah, and Al-Ghazali laid the foundational principles of integrating religious authority with political leadership, emphasizing justice, consultation (Shura), and public welfare. Al-Mawardi, in particular, highlighted the essential role of leadership in upholding Shari'ah and promoting societal harmony. Ibn Taymiyyah emphasized the importance of aligning leadership with divine purposes, while Al-Ghazali focused on the moral integrity of leaders [43] .

In his works “Min Fiqh al-Daulah fī al-Islām” and “Madkhal lil-Dirāsāt al-Sharīah al-Islāmiyyah”, Yusuf al-Qaradawi outlines the principles of a Sharī’ah-based constitutional state, “al-daulah al-shar’iyyah al-dustūriyyah”. He argues that while the form and name of the state are secondary, the constitution must reflect Islamic rules from the Qur’an and Hadith. Qardhawi emphasizes that an Islamic state, whether termed “Imāmāt” or “Khilāfah”, should be accountable to its people and uphold principles of deliberative governance. Leaders are to be chosen based on merit and must be accountable to a legislative council, “Ahl al-shūra” or “Ashāb al-hal wa al-aqd”, similar to a democratic system. This ensures that power is not inherited but earned and held in check by the community [44].

The theological leadership concept of Al-'Ulama Warasatul Anbiya (The Scholars are the Inheritors of the Prophets) is deeply connected to the principle of Wasatiyyah (moderation), as emphasized by Yusuf Al-Qaradawi and discussed by Yedi Purwanto, Aep Saepudin, Shofaussamawati, Mohammad Rindu Fajar Islamy, and Didin Baharuddin. Al-Qaradawi's understanding of Wasatiyyah is founded on several key pillars: a comprehensive and integrative understanding of Islam (Al-Fahm Al-Shamil), maintaining a balance between belief (Iman) and the Shari'a (Islamic law), and adhering to the Qur'an and Sunnah as the core references for guiding Muslim life.

Additionally, Al-Qaradawi advocates for the continuous application of Ijtihad (independent reasoning) and Tajdid (renewal) by scholars to adapt Islamic principles to contemporary issues. This comprehensive and balanced framework aligns with the responsibility of the 'Ulama to inherit prophetic leadership, combining 'Ilm (knowledge) with 'Amal (action), ensuring that they guide the community in a way that integrates spiritual, moral, and practical wisdom. This balance also reflects the broader objectives of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah (the higher purposes of Islamic law), ensuring justice and welfare in both religious and worldly matters [45] .

M. A. Muqtedar Khan underscores the integration and harmonization of the Islamic political system, both in the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and modern times. The pursuit of establishing an Islamic state or reviving the Caliphate reflects an ongoing effort to align leadership with Islamic principles. Thinkers like Maulana Maududi and Rashid Rida recognized the challenges of reinstituting the Caliphate and adapted by promoting the Islamic state within the nation-state system. This harmonization with the modern political order shows how Islamic governance can evolve while adhering to its foundational values of Islamic law and ethics. Historically, Islamic empires, such as the Rashidun and Abbasids, derived legitimacy from implementing Islamic law, and this integration continues in modern states like Iran and Saudi Arabia, which reject secularism and maintain the political relevance of Islam [46] .

Khan further highlights the prophetic governance model as a template for modern Islamic political systems. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) established an Islamic state in Medina, which integrated religious and political leadership, enshrining consent, cooperation, and religious autonomy in governance through the Constitution of Medina. This early Islamic political system harmonized diverse religious communities under a unified social contract, setting a precedent for future Islamic governance. The principles laid down by the Prophet's leadership continue to influence modern Islamic states, which seek to advance social justice and public welfare in line with the Maqasid al-Shari'ah. Thus, the integration of Islamic political ideals during Prophet Muhammad's time resonates with how contemporary Islamic states attempt to balance religious obligations with governance in modern contexts [46] .

As noted by Wahab, the discourse of da’wah is examined through a Maqāṣidī approach, employing reflective cycles to address challenges within contemporary South African society. This study highlights the limited receptivity of the public to the ‘Ulamā fraternity’s messaging, referred to as Lughah al-khiṭāb, and explores the impact of social media on youth engagement with Da’wah in the Western Cape Province. A survey distributed to 137 participants revealed that knowledge levels did not significantly influence engagement, aligning with the null hypothesis. These findings underscore the need for a deeper evaluation of da’wah practices to enhance their relevance and effectiveness in modern contexts [47]. As highlighted by Wahab (2023) in his primary research, integrating knowledge (IOK) for future implications is crucial for addressing these challenges and fostering a more impactful da’wah discourse.

Shahino Mah Abdullah emphasizes integrating leadership and moderation (Wasatiyyah) within Islamic theology, particularly in promoting sustainability. From an Islamic perspective, implementing environmentally conscious programs aligns with the Maqasid Al-Shari'ah, particularly protecting self (Hifz Al-nafs) and the environment (Hifz Al-bi'ah). These efforts support the broader objectives of Shari'ah, which include balancing economic growth with environmental preservation. In his work 'Towards an Islamic Jurisprudence of the Environment,' Mustafa Abu Sway highlights that environmental protection is essential for fulfilling humanity's role as vicegerents (Khulafa) on earth. Mohammad Hashim Kamali also advocates for moderation (Wasatiyyah) in resource use, ensuring sustainability remains a core principle in leadership and governance [48].

Many Islamic scholars have explored the concept of Al- ‘Ulama Warasatul Anbiya (The Scholars are the Heirs of the Prophets) and the principles of Wasatiyyah (moderation) throughout history. Their contributions span centuries, providing a deep intellectual and spiritual understanding of theological leadership.

Classical Period (7th–12th Century), Imam al-Ghazali (1058–1111), in his seminal work "Ihya' Ulum al-Din" (1096), emphasized the critical role of scholars in balancing rationality and spirituality. Al-Ghazali's vision of theological leadership was centered on guiding society with moral integrity and wisdom, positioning scholars as spiritual guides [49]. Similarly, Al-Mawardi (972–1058), in "Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah" (1058), laid out political theories where the ulama was tasked with ensuring responsible and just governance, critical for the preservation of the Islamic state [50]. Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328), in his "Majmu' al-Fatawa" (14th Century), saw the ulama as protectors of Islamic orthodoxy, advocating for their role in safeguarding the faith from deviations [51].

Middle Ages (13th–17th Century): During the Middle Ages, scholars like Al-Farabi (872–950), in "Al-Madina al-Fadila" (The Virtuous City), explored philosophical ideas on justice, leadership, and ideal governance. He emphasized that the ulama should uphold justice and moral order [52]. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), through his "Muqaddimah" (1377), introduced a socio-political theory where the cycles of civilization depended on the strength and ethical leadership of scholars. He underscored the ulama's role in sustaining civilizations through their guidance in governance [53].

Modern Islamic Thinkers (18th–20th Century): The modern Period saw a rethinking of Islamic governance. Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), through "Al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqa" (1884), argued for Islamic reform and moderation, emphasizing theological leadership's role in addressing modern challenges [54]. Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966), in "Milestones" (1964), stressed the revival of the Islamic faith through leadership that embodies Islamic principles [55]. Al-Mubarak (1898–1981) focused on the connection between Islamic ethics and governance, emphasizing that the ulama must align governance with moral values in his "Islamic Thought and Leadership" [56].

Moreover, Muhammad Iqbal (1877Iqbal ( -1938)), through his "Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam" (1930), advocated for an intellectual and spiritual revival of Islamic philosophy and leadership, promoting ethical governance [57] . Rachid Ghannouchi (b. 1941), in "Public Freedoms in the Islamic State" (1993), argued for a synthesis between Islamic democracy and modern governance, where the ulama plays a crucial role in political leadership [58] .

Contemporary Islamic Scholars (21st Century), the most prominent contemporary Islamic philosophers, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (b. 1931) [59] and Prof. Emeritus Dato' Dr. Abdul Hamid A. Abu Sulayman (1936-2021) has significantly contributed to theological leadership [60] . Al-Attas, through his "Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam", emphasizes the integration of traditional Islamic sciences with modern thought. Prof. Abdul Hamid A. In "The Islamic Theory of International Relations" (1987), Abu Sulayman advocates for visionary leadership within Islamic governance, stressing the advancement of the Muslim ummah through ethical reform [61] .

In the contemporary era, scholars continue to advance the discourse on leadership and Wasatiyyah. Tariq Ramadan (b. 1962), in "Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation", calls for a renewal in Islamic leadership principles to adapt to a globalized world [62] , while Jasser Auda (b. 1966), in "Maqasid al-Shariah: A Beginner's Guide", focuses on applying the higher intents of Islamic law in governance, promoting moderation and ethical leadership [63] . Ali Jum'ah (b. 1952), in his "Al-Fiqh al-Wasatiyyah", emphasizes moderate jurisprudence in leadership. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926-2022), in "Fiqh al-Jihad", highlights the balanced application of Islamic principles in modern governance. Muhammad Fawwaz Bin Muhammad Yusoff also contributes with his exploration of "Theological Leadership and Wasatiyyah", focusing on contemporary governance.

Western Islamic Theologians and Western scholars such as Hamza Yusuf, in "Purification of the Heart", focus on the moral and spiritual dimensions of leadership [64] . Timothy Winter, in "Travelling Home: Essays on Islam in Europe" [65] , explores Islamic leadership within the Western context, emphasizing moderation and integration [66] . John Esposito, in "Islam and Democracy", examines the intersection between Islamic governance and democratic principles, highlighting the role of Islamic theological thought in modern governance [67][68] .

In short, Together, these scholars have created a rich intellectual tradition of theological leadership and Wasatiyyah, contributing to the ongoing discourse on Islamic governance, ethics, and moderation from the classical period to contemporary times.