Mathematics remains a challenging subject for many secondary students, particularly in mastering the conversion between decimals, fractions, and percentages (DFP). Misunderstanding these foundational concepts can negatively impact broader mathematical competencies, including problem-solving, ratios, and data interpretation ((Hong et al., 2020); (Sweeney & Quinn, 2000)). Despite repeated curriculum exposure, students often treat these forms as unrelated, leading to confusion and underperformance ((Pagni, 2004)).

One proposed solution to improve conceptual clarity and engagement is cooperative learning, which emphasizes peer interaction and student-centered instruction. Research consistently shows that cooperative strategies can enhance mathematical understanding, motivation, and problem-solving skills (Gillies, 2016); (Hossain et al., 2012); (Johnson & Johnson, 2019)). Among these strategies, the Buddy system, where students work in consistent pairs to support each other’s learning, has shown promise in enhancing both academic and social outcomes ((Balan, 2015); (Mohd Zahid et al., 2021);(Reid et al., 2016)).

However, most studies on the Buddy system focus on areas like language learning or support for students with disabilities ((Adams, 2016); (Motzo, 2016)), with limited evidence of its application in mathematics education. Moreover, the pedagogical relevance and implementation of such systems in Southeast Asian classrooms, especially in Brunei Darussalam and Indonesia, remain underexplored. Although informal peer support may occur in classrooms, there is a notable lack of formalized Buddy system interventions documented in these contexts ((Abdul Malak, 2015); (Wahat, 2020)). However, recent Bruneian research has highlighted the growing importance of collaborative and digitally supported pedagogies, particularly during education system transitions (Johari et al., 2024), reinforcing the relevance of peer learning strategies such as the Buddy system. (Gan & Shahrill, 2019) and(Purnomo et al., 2022), (Lestari et al., 2023) noted that structured peer teaching approaches are still largely absent in Brunei’s mathematics classrooms, where informal or private tutoring tends to dominate the support landscape.

To address this gap, this study implemented a Buddy system intervention within Year 9 mathematics classes in Brunei, focusing on DFP conversions, a persistent area of difficulty for students. The research is grounded in Cooperative Learning Theory ((Johnson et al., 1991);(Slavin, 2011)), which emphasizes positive interdependence, individual accountability, and promotive interaction. In line with this framework, we employed action research to allow the teacher-researcher to improve practice and reflect on the intervention’s impact iteratively ((Feldman et al., 2018); (Ulvik, 2014)).

By examining both student performance and perceptions, this study aims to evaluate the feasibility and potential benefits of a Buddy system in mathematics learning in the Southeast Asian context. The findings may inform future pedagogical practices in Brunei and similar educational settings. Based on the objectives of this study, the following questions were addressed:

These reflections suggest that dialogic peer explanations often use more accessible language and personalised approaches, supporting conceptual clarity and procedural accuracy ((Li et al., 2021); (Purnomo et al., 2022)). This also aligns with (Gillies, 2020), who found that peer scaffolding enhances student learning in mathematics when Buddies assist each other through dialogue and modelling.

Such emotional and cognitive support is echoed in classroom experiments where peer-assisted models improved persistence and reduced anxiety ((Adeniji & Rukayya, 2022); (Kurniawan & Saleh, 2023)). Overall gains in this small sample (n = 30) mirror broader meta-analytic evidence that cooperative strategies reliably boost mathematics achievement ((Mahmud & Wulandari, 2023)) and structured peer-assisted learning benefits algebra problem solving (Putra & Abdullah, 2020).

Nonetheless, the teacher-researcher’s dual role may have introduced Hawthorne effects; future studies with randomised control groups are recommended. The cultural alignment of peer strategies with Bruneian classroom norms may have further supported successful implementation. According to (Hofstede, 2010) cultural dimensions, collectivist learning environments are especially well-suited to peer-based interventions such as the Buddy system. Other local studies further confirm positive student perceptions of supplemental peer learning (Lestari et al., 2023).

Collectively, the quantitative improvements and rich qualitative themes corroborate the growing body of evidence that cooperative learning, whether through structured TGT, peer tutoring, or technology-enhanced formats, enhances engagement and achievement in mathematics ((Gillies, 2020); (Li et al., 2021);(Mahmud & Wulandari, 2023)). The Buddy system offers a culturally congruent, low-cost strategy that, when guided and monitored, can yield both cognitive and affective benefits for secondary students in Brunei and comparable contexts.

This is further supported by evidence from Southeast Asian contexts, where peer-based formative strategies influenced both instructional design and assessment practices in language education ((Trang et al., 2024)), indicating the potential cross-disciplinary relevance of structured peer models. This also aligns with prior studies demonstrating the value of structured peer learning in improving engagement, confidence, and classroom cohesion (Balan, 2015);(Mohd Zahid et al., 2021); (Reid et al., 2016)).

This study investigated the effectiveness of a Buddy system in supporting Year 8 Bruneian students’ ability to convert between decimals, fractions, and percentages (RQ1) and explored their perceptions of the intervention (RQ2). The findings indicate that most students showed measurable improvement in their post-test performance, and the system was perceived positively by nearly all participants. Quantitative gains were complemented by qualitative insights that revealed three dominant themes: guidance, support, and cooperative learning. These themes were reflected in students’ reflection journals and helped explain how the Buddy system contributed to conceptual understanding and emotional engagement.

While the results support the value of peer-assisted learning in mathematics, not all students benefited equally. A small number experienced performance declines, underscoring the need for careful pairing and continuous teacher facilitation. The study also has limitations, including a small sample size, the lack of a control group, and the possibility of observer effects due to the teacher-researcher’s presence.

Despite these constraints, the findings provide encouraging evidence for integrating the Buddy system into mathematics classrooms. It offers a culturally relevant and low-cost approach that promotes peer dialogue, confidence, and collaborative learning, particularly suited to collectivist classroom cultures like Brunei’s. Future research could expand the study to include more diverse schools, extended intervention periods, and comparative control groups to validate further and refine the approach.

The study affirms that when thoughtfully designed and supported, peer-learning strategies like the Buddy system can enhance academic performance and student engagement in mathematics.

We express our appreciation to the school administrator, mathematics teachers, and Year 9 students who participated in this study. We also acknowledge Dr. Marlizayati Johari for her valuable academic guidance and encouragement. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Kabara Auwal Halabi (PhD student, SHBIE, UBD) for his research assistance in reviewing and reformatting the manuscript draft before its initial submission.