In Ghana, mathematics is a requisite as a result of which a learner must pass with a grade of C6 or better to further one’s education either at the SHS level (MOE, 2012) or at the tertiary level (Ghana Tertiary Education Commission [GTEC], 2024). It is also a requirement for professional studies in areas like engineering, statistics, law and scientific research. (Abreh et al., 2018). Although, literature enumerates problems that affect students’ performance in mathematics, gender has long been regarded a factor that contribute to disparities in performance of both sexes in all levels at the institutions of learning ((Laine, 2022); (Ramaprabha & Selvaganapathy, 2024)). Thus, pitching gender disparities as an issue in educational research of which mathematics is no exception (Haynes, 2008). Additionally, literature characterizes attitudes and perceptions as the blight in the enhancement of students’ performance in mathematics (Asomah, et al., 2019;(Devine et al., 2012)). In a more resent study, Anokye-Poku and (Anokye-Poku & Ampadu, 2020), also highlighted gender-based attitudes and perceptions as problematic across the length and breadth of academic education especially when it comes to mathematics. Such attitudes and perceptions could lead to a high or low performance in mathematics. (Gunderson et al., 2012) reported that undesirable attitudes, perceptions and anxiety about mathematics are inclined in the direction of females than in males. The cause of these negative attitudes and anxiety could be anchored on the experiences of inferiority complex in relation to the study of mathematics from the perspectives of the females (Wilmot et al., 2018). The relevance of the current study is contingent on the recent poor performance of female students in mathematics in Gushegu Municipality in the Northern Region of Ghana. In particular, the West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE) Chief Examiner’s report summarized the overall performance of both sexes were in their summative examination as “most students who attempted to answer questions related to the theory section of their mathematics final examinations got it wrong especially among the female students who participated in the WASSCE” (Chief Examiners Report, 2022; 2023). Although several studies ((Wilmot et al., 2018); (Devine et al., 2012); (Ramaprabha & Selvaganapathy, 2024)) have been conducted about gender differences in mathematics performance, no comprehensive study has been conducted on the influence of gender disparities in mathematics performance in the Gushegu Municipality. Gender differences in attitudes and perceptions in mathematics continues to attract the attention of researchers ((Asamoah-Gyawu et al., 2023), (Wilmot et al., 2018), (Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020)). It is therefore worth considering the effects of these variables that impact performance in mathematics. Thus, this study seeks to investigate the influence of gender disparities in mathematics performance, perception and attitudes among SHS students in the Gushegu Municipal in the Northern Region of Ghana.

The study draws its theoretical basis from four theories: the equity theory, the deficit theory, the expectancy-value theory, and the implicit theory. The Equity Theory describes equity as the result of equality in the accessibility to learning in education (Forgasz, 2014). This theory emphasises the need to give each learner equal opportunities to learn. Thus, entailed in equity are the qualitative traits of fairness and justice. According to (Nanni, 2023), treating gender equally leads to equal outcomes, opportunities and development. The theory affords this study the window to investigate whether both sexes are recipients of equal opportunities from their educators in the classroom setting.

Moreover, the expectancy-value theory delineates the association that exist in the expectations in relation to the successful nature in the execution of a task or in the accomplishment of a related work (Lubrick et al., 2019). The theory advocates that, an individual’s eagerness to accomplish a given task is to a large extent conditioned on the his or her ability and motivation devoid of external factors ((Wigfield et al., 2012)). (Guan et al., 2006) and (Guan et al., 2006) argued that, the predictions of the learner’s accomplishment is central to their expectancy-related beliefs.

Implicit theory provides a comprehensive perspectives of the traits (intelligence or mathematics ability) individuals have about themselves (Burkley et al., 2010). Embedded in implicit theory are entity theory and an incremental theory (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Individuals with the belief of a “fixed” form of their intelligence whereas those who hold the belief of varied forms of intelligence are said to be entity and an incremental theory respectively. Thus, with entity intelligence cannot be broadened while incremental views intelligence as expandable (Dweck & Molden, 2000). Some studies ((Siegle et al., 2010); (Blackwell et al., 2007)) have investigated the impact of gender differences in implicit theories of intelligence on students. This theory holds relevance as it provides an opportunity to evaluate the beliefs students hold about their ability to perform mathematics at the SHS level, particularly from the perspectives of students in the Gushegu Municipality.

The variables that informed the conduct of this study were conceptualised and operationalised in this study. Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework of the study. In this study, it is believed that student mathematics performance (dependent variable) is contingent on the independent variables, which include gender (male or female), student perception towards mathematics, and student attitudes towards mathematics. These factors invariably affect the performance of students. Further, gender as conceptualised to mean being a male or a female student may have influence on the attitudes and perceptions of students as depicted in the diagram.

The following are the research questions and hypotheses that guided the conduct of this study.

1. H01: There is no significant difference in the perception of male and female students towards mathematics.

2. H02: There is no significant difference in the attitudes of male and female students towards mathematics.

3. H03: There is no significant difference in mathematics performance between male and female students.

The study adopted a descriptive survey design, gathering data through questionnaires and a mathematics achievement test. This design was deemed appropriate because it offered a comprehensive understanding of gender-based differences in students' perceptions, attitudes towards mathematics, and performance. Additionally, this approach supported the development and testing of research hypotheses relevant to the study (Guetterman et al., 2015). Consequently, the design facilitated the examination of observed facts and allowed the researchers to investigate potential performance differences between male and female students (Jong & Voordt, 2002). Ultimately, this design enabled a factual analysis and a deeper understanding of the research problem, aligning with emerging trends in the literature

This study employed a stratified random sampling technique, allowing the researcher to organise participants by gender to highlight differences in male and female students' perceptions of mathematics. The researcher obtained a list of male and female mathematics students across various programmes and then randomly selected a proportional number from each group. Slovin’s formula was used to determine the sample size for the quantitative phase, providing a method to select a representative sample with the desired level of accuracy (Stephaine, 2003). The formula is given by:

, where N = total population, e = Error tolerance, n = sample size.

The target population is 1608. Given a confidence interval of 95% and a sampling error of 5%., so we obtain

Hence a minimum of 311 mathematics students is deemed representative of the population for the study. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select proportional allocations of students from each stratum. Table 1presents the data of the participants of the study. In the analysis of the data, there were more females (50.8%) than males (49.2%). Additionally, 85.5% of the students were under the age of 18-20 years, followed by those aged 21-23 years (10.9%), 15-17 years (3.2%), and a small number of students aged 24-26 years (0.3%). Most students also belonged to Form 3 (55.0%), while a few students belonged to Form 2 (45.0%).

The study used an adapted questionnaire with close-ended items (Asomah et al., 2024) and the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) (West Africa Examination Council [WAEC], 2023) for the purposes of responding to participant’s perceptions, attitudes and performance respectively. The survey was divided into three sections. The first section collected demographic information, such as sex, age, and school stage. The second section included close-ended items to explore how gender disparities affect SHS students' perceptions, and attitudes towards mathematics, using a 5-point Likert scale: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). Respondents were asked to rate each item based on their personal judgement.

The third section was used to assess the performance of the students. In particular, the section consisted of 20 multiple-choice questions covering algebra, statistics, probability, and geometry—topics from the Form 1 and Form 2 curriculum. The inclusion of these topics was verified through the lesson notes of participating teachers and students’ mathematics notebooks, ensuring that these areas had already been taught. This verification informed the choice to include only Form 2 and Form 3 students in the study. The test items were reviewed by experienced teachers using standard criteria established by WAEC to ensure quality and alignment with the curriculum.

Senior High School students in the Gushegu Municipality in the Northern Region of Ghana whose characteristics are similar to those in the area of the study were chosen to participate in the pilot testing of the instrument. In accordance with(Perneger et al., 2015), who suggest that a population sample size of thirty (30) is mostly accepted to ensure statistical reliability and identify key themes in a study, 35 students were used for the pilot phase. The results from the pilot test yielded reliability coefficients ranging from 0.60 to 0.9. The instruments were refined based on the feedback from the piloting stage, which resulted in the final Cronbach’s alpha value reliability for the study. Specifically, the trustworthiness of the scores for the perception subscales were perception of gender abilities (15 items, α = .81), perception of self-abilities (11 items, α = .80), perception towards teaching mathematics (11 items, α = .76). For the attitude subscales, the reliability scores were: personal mathematics attitudes (13 items, α = .79), mathematics interest and engagement (7 items, α = .87). On the factors that influence mathematics performance, the subscales were: students’ mathematics background (8 items, α = .89), the learning environment (8 items, α = .78), gender stereotype (6 items α = .86), career aspirations (8 items α = .89). The mathematics test had a reliability coefficient of (20 items, α = .86). Kothari (2004) and Zohrabi (2013) indicate that reliability coefficients above 0.7 are considered acceptable, and those exceeding 0.8 are deemed excellent. To assess the content, criterion, and face validity of the questionnaire, experts from the Teacher Education Department (TED), University of Ghana (UG), reviewed and provided feedback on the items tested. Their revisions were incorporated to enhance the items’ relevance and consistency in achieving the intended objectives.

The questionnaires and the mathematics test (standardised objective test) were administered from 13th July, 2024, to 2nd August, 2024, at the Gushegu Senior High School. The mathematics test was scored out of 100 and employed as means of assessing performances of the individual students in the study. The grading of the outcome of the test was informed by the West Africa Examination Council Grading System for Examinations (2023). Further, the performance of both sexes were computed using the t-test to find out if their means were statistically different. Additionally, means and standard deviations as well as percentages were used in analysing survey responses in relation to students’ perceptions and attitudes and the academic performance data.

This research question measured the differences if any in the perceptions of male and female students towards about mathematics. Respondents were asked to specify their level of contentment or discontentment to items based on sub scales; Perception of gender abilities, Perception of self-abilities, and Perception towards teaching mathematics. The measurement of students’ perceptions towards mathematics based on gender ranged on a scale of five items from “SD” “D”, “N”, “A”, “SA”, for “Strongly Disagree”, “Disagree” “Neutral”, “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, respectively. The scores of male and female students were analysed using the t-test.

This research question was aimed at investigating potential differences in attitudes towards mathematics between male and female SHS students. Respondents were asked to specify their level of contentment or discontentment to items based on subscales of personal mathematics attitudes and mathematics interest and engagement. The measurement of students’ attitudes towards

mathematics was ranged on a scale of five items from "SD,” "D," "N," "A," and "SA" for “Strongly Disagree”, “Disagree” “Neutral”, “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, respectively. The results were analysed using the t-test.

This research question sought to measure if there exist some differences in mathematics performance of male and female SHS students. Respondents were asked to answer 20 multiple Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT).

This research question sought to identify factors influencing performance in mathematics. Respondents were asked to specify their level of contentment or discontentment to items anchored on the subscales of (student mathematics background, the learning environment, gender stereotypes, and career aspirations) measuring factors that influence performance in mathematics on a scale of five items ranging from "SD,” "D," "N," "A," and "SA" for “Strongly Disagree”, “Disagree” “Neutral”, “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, respectively. The results were presented using means (M) and standard deviations (SD), such that mean scores above 2.5 indicate respondents agreed and less than 2.5 indicate respondents disagreed. Consequently, each of these domains that underpinned factors that influence performance in mathematics was presented in Tables 10, 11, 12, and 13.

The outcome of the study showed that there is a significant difference in male and female students’ perceptions about mathematics. The study confirms that boys have better perceptions about mathematics than girls. The students generally agreed that boys are naturally better than girls in mathematics. In addition, students also generally agreed that males are better fit for pursuing a career in mathematics than females. The results revealed that males (M = 135.3399, SD=12.80428) did differ significantly from females (M=111.0701, SD= 11.32227) with regards to their perception. Thus, male students had better perceptions than their female counterparts based on the recorded means.

This finding confirms the findings of Mauel (2022), who reported the existance of a significant difference in the perceptions of the students, specifically in identity in relation to mathematics, science, self-efficacy in mathematics, and self-efficacy in science. The findings also conform with (Asante, 2010), who reported of a large differences in mathematics performance on the account of gender in Ghana may be attributed to social perception. However, the result of the current study disagrees with (Daud et al., 2020-04), who reported non-existence significant differences in perception about mathematics across genders. Also, this study is inconsistent with the result of (Efa & Frimpong, 2023), who argued of non-existence of differences in perception about core mathematics between the two sexes.

The attitudinal outcomes of the current study depicts the existence of differences that is significant in both sexes towards mathematics. The study confirms that boys have better perceptions about mathematics than girls. This study corroborates the findings of (Bashir et al., 2023), which revealed the existence of significant differences in the attitudes of the two sexes towards mathematics. Moreover, (Bashir et al., 2023) revealed that gender differences were found regarding fear and anxiety about mathematics; females had more anxiety and fear than males. The study also confirms the findings of (Ramaprabha & Selvaganapathy, 2024), which revealed that gender differences in attitude exist between male and female secondary school students, with male students having better attitudes towards mathematics than female students. Rodriguez et al. (2020) identified that girls have a less positive attitude towards math, as he reported a higher level of anxiety in females than in males. However, the findings of the current study disagree with the findings of (Asare-Inkoom et al., 2008), who found no significant difference in attitudes towards mathematics between boys and girls at the JSS level, indicating that students of both sexes have the same attitudes towards mathematics.

The analysis showed that there is a significant difference between male and female students’ mathematics performance. This means that males did differ significantly from females with regards to their mathematics performance based on the recorded means. The outcome of this study is consistent with that of (Asante, 2010) and (Wrigley-Asante et al., 2023) whose results showed that males outperform their female counterparts in mathematics. Again, this study is in consonance with the studies of (Tetteh et al., 2018; (Anokye-Poku & Ampadu, 2020); (Asomah et al., 2023)), which also demonstrated that males outperform females in mathematics performance. However, the present study, unlike the findings of (Efa & Frimpong, 2023), revealed that female students did better than their male counterparts, which is contrary to the equity theory. Also, (Anjum, 2015) conducted gender-based research on the differences in the achievement of mathematics and proved the existence of a significant difference in the achievement of girls and boys at the basic school, where girls outperformed their colleague boys. Given that the current study took place at the SHS, the age gap could also account for the differences.

The study established that students’ mathematics background, learning environment, gender stereotype and career aspirations are factors that influence performance in mathematics at the SHS level. Notably, students were on consensus in relation to the related courses offered in mathematics in the past. Also, the students generally agreed that they have had an excellent mathematics education so far. Interestingly, they also asserted that in their class, mathematics teachers use their experiences at home to explain mathematical concepts to our understanding. Furthermore, the students agreed to the fact that they believe in their capabilities to study mathematics. However, the students disagreed that they knew more female role models who pursued a career in mathematics than males.

This finding is in alignment with several studies ((Salifu et al., 2017); (Asomah et al., 2022)). The results of the aforementioned studies, like the present study, revealed that performance assessment tests are not biased on the account of gender and contradict the notion that boys outperform girls in mathematics. On the contrary, the results of this study was not in consonance with the findings of(Samuel & Mokoaleli, 2017), whose recommendation supported a surge in the intake of female teachers in the teaching of mathematics as a means of modeling favourable female dispositions towards the learning of mathematics.