The central role of mathematics in the field of education and human capital development requires little, if any, debate concerning its vitality as there is growing consensus among, inter alia, scholars, policy decision-makers and various stakeholders in the realm of education (Fitzmaurice et al., 2021); (Human et al., 2015);(Lundqvist et al., 2023) that this subject is invaluable. Within the space of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education; mathematics is considered “the language that underpins all other STEM disciplines” (Fitzmaurice et al., 2021). In the broader field of education, strong foundational mathematical skills and proficiency have been found to help improve educational outcomes in later years (Vogt et al., 2020); (Wickstrom et al., 2019). However, notwithstanding the well documented importance of mathematics, there is evidence that learners in many countries, globally, perform poorly in this crucial subject. South Africa, the country in which the current study was conducted, is one of those countries with notable poor performance in mathematics.

Like numerous other countries, globally, South Africa has participated in several assessments conducted as part of the Trends in International Mathematics and Sciences (TIMSS). TIMSS has a fundamental goal “to assist countries to monitor and evaluate” (Reddy et al., 2022) their mathematics and science attainment in primary and secondary school education. In a quest to improve the pedagogical standards and learner performance, South Africa has participated in six of the seven TIMSS tests at grades 8 and/or 9 and twice at grade 5 TIMSS mathematics tests since its inception in 1995 (Reddy et al., 2012); (Reddy et al., 2022). Apart from TIMSS, South Africa has participated in numeracy tests conducted by the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) since its inauguration in 1995 (Hungi et al., 2010). However, owing to the global nature of TIMSS, this paper highlights a few points regarding the performance of South African learners in TIMSS tests.

Various TIMSS reports suggest that, compared to many other countries in the world, the South African Grades 5 and 9, respectively, perform poorly in terms of the international benchmarks used to reflect on the learners’ mathematical proficiency. In essence, when measured in terms of the TIMSS international benchmark of the four points scale, namely, Low (400 to 475 points); Intermediate (475 to 550 points); High (550 to 625 points); and Advanced (>625 points), between 1995 and 2019; South Africa has consistently scored below 400 points in Grades 5 and 9, respectively(Isdale et al., 2017);(Reddy et al., 2022). For example, in their first TIMSS Grade 5 mathematics participation, South Africa scored 376 and in 2019, the country dropped to 374 points (Isdale et al., 2017); (Reddy et al., 2022). Likewise, in their Grade 9 mathematics TIMSS sitting in 2015, the country scored 372 and, even though there was an improvement in 2019; this improvement to 389 points still falls short of the lowest ‘acceptable’ average of between 400 and 475 points (Reddy et al., 2022). Accordingly, this suggests that there is a serious need for urgent, tangible, and on-going interventions to improve learner performance in mathematics.

The authors of this paper contend that, if they are to yield any positive results, such intervention strategies need to be conceived and implemented very early in the schooling years, preferably in the Early Childhood Education (ECE) stage. This assertion is predicated on extensive empirical evidence which suggests that early education interventions, particularly in mathematics education, tend to have a positive impact on the educational development and performance of a child in later years (Aunio et al., 2021); (Björklund et al., 2020); (Clements & Sarama, 2011). For this reason, a myriad of creative, meaningful, and long-lasting interventions must be developed to offset the current status quo in mathematics learner attainment in South Africa. Mathematics clubs have proven to be one of the most successful interventionary strategies both in South Africa and in other parts of the world(Graven, 2016); (Papanastasiou et al., 2004). Nevertheless, the literature reviewed for this paper suggests that most of the research conducted on mathematics clubs in formal school settings tends to focus more on senior classes rather than on ECE (Graven, 2016). Furthermore, there is hardly any research that specifically focuses on the factors that (potentially) lead to the effectiveness or success of maths clubs. Hence, the dearth of research which focuses on the application and impact of mathematics clubs in ECE necessitated the current research. There is, therefore, a fundamental need to conduct more studies on maths clubs withinin the space of ECE, significantly, studies with focus on the factors that contribute to the effectiveness/success of mathematics clubs are needed.

Accordingly, this paper, which is a product of a bigger study whose aim was to explore possible strategies, within the context of mathematics clubs, to mitigate underachievement among the Grade 3 learners, teases out some of the aspects that the current researchers considered as key elements that enabled improved learner performance and thus, arguably, rendered the mathematics clubs (in the context of the study conducted) successful. This success was measured in terms of the results of the pre- and post-intervention assessments conducted in the study. These results were published in a different report; hence the current researchers do not reflect on the details of the results as this would be a repetition of what has already been reported. Nonetheless, for the purposes of this paper, in the research method section of this discussion, the current researchers reflect briefly on the results of those pre- and post-intervention assessments. Accordingly, the research question that this paper seeks to answer can be phrased as follows: What factors, within the maths clubs, led to the ‘relaxed’ atmosphere culminating in overall improvement in learner performance as measured through the pre- and post-intervention assessment results?

However, for the purposes of this discussion and in view of the paucity of research in respect of mathematic clubs’ efficacy, a brief reflection on the nature, purpose and some of the factors enabling the effectiveness of math clubs is essential.

The participants were drawn from four schools which catered for Grade 3 learners in one township in the Maquassi Hills area which falls under the ambit of the Dr. Kenneth Kaunda Education District in the Northwest Province of South Africa. The sample consisted of 12 teachers (03 teachers per school) and 144 learners (36 learners per school). The research respondents were selected purposively and opportunistically; hence, their enlisting was predicated on their availability and willingness to partake in the study (Golzar et al., 2022); (Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024). This was done with due consideration for time constraints and limited resources. The selection of the learners was done by the teachers with focus on the learners who achieved an average of less than 50% in the first term of the school year. In total, 12 Mathematics Clubs were formed and thus participated in the intervention action research.

Various activities took place during the 15 weeks of the project. These included three workshops conducted by the primary researcher for the participant-teachers. Furthermore, the learners wrote a pre-intervention test which focused on all four basic operations used in mathematics. Thereafter, the participant-teachers, with the guidance of and close observation by the primary researcher(the second author), conducted pedagogical actions (they facilitated teaching and learning in the maths clubs), which were centred on hands-on activities, individual and group activities by the learners. These included the use of games, collaborative learning and learner-initiated problem-solving approaches; all of which made learning and teaching fun. Additionally, as explicated later in this discussion, apart from guiding the activities in the mathematics clubs the primary researcher observed and journalled (recorded in writing) all the activities she observed in the maths clubs that formed part of the study.

During the final week of the project, the learners sat for a post-intervention assessment. The results of the pre- and post-intervention assessments were compared and there was a notable improvement in learner performance, discernible from the post-intervention assessment results as depicted in Table 1. Likewise, the accompanying Figure 1, indicates the overall average percentage (%) improvement in learner performance when the clubs are put together. It must be emphasised that these scores, which have been discussed in detail as part of the results and findings in a different (already published) paper, are presented here only as evidence that the interventions made during the 15 weeks of conducting a maths clubs programme yielded positive results.

It must be noted that owing to circumstances such as transport issues, 27 of the learners did not complete the whole duration of the project. For this reason, the results of the post-intervention assessment as shown in the table below, indicate a total of 117 learners. Therefore, not all learners who were part of the programme, upon inception, were able to sit for the post-intervention assessment on the 15^th and final week of the programme.

Nevertheless, as indicated in Table 1, the post-intervention assessment results indicate that there was an overall improvement in learner performance in each club regarding all the four basic

mathematical operations. For example, in respect of Club O, in a test set out of 20 marks, the pre-intervention assessment score yielded an average score of 8.57 marks per learner. In term of percentages, this score amounted to 42.86%. The post-intervention assessment score improved to12.86 marks, which amounted to 64.29%. Overall, the same Club O recorded improvements in each basic operation assessment scores when the pre-intervention assessment results were compared to post-intervention results as follows: addition (8.57%), subtraction (20.00%) multiplication (14. 29%) and division (42. 86%). In terms of the 12 Maths Clubs put together, there was an improvement in leaner performance, in each basic operation, as measured through the post-intervention scores as well. This improvement is depicted in Figure 1 as follows: addition (15.75%), subtraction (12.77%), multiplication (20.89% and division (18.95%). The Figure 1 highlights the overall improvement in learner performance in all twelve maths clubs that participated in the study as noted in the post-intervention assessment results.

As indicated in the introduction of this paper, the preceding points needed to be presented to underscore the assertion that there was notable improvement in the participant learners’ performance, discernible from the post-intervention assessment results. This improvement depicts the effectiveness of the interventionary strategies used in the mathematics clubs in the study.

Furthermore, as part of the bigger study on which this paper is based, nine out of the twelve teachers were interviewed to obtain their impression of the intervention programme. The interviews were audio-recorded with consent from each participant. Furthermore, as indicated in the findings section, pseudonyms are used to conceal the identity of each interviewee. The other three teachers exercised their ethical right and, thus, chose not to participate in the interviews. Additionally, the current study uses evidence from data collected through participant observations by the second author, as the main qualitative researcher, to explicate the findings (Zahle, 2019).

Generally, the participant-teachers indicated that participation in the programme was beneficial to them and their learners. Significantly, the word ‘relaxed’ was a notable refrain used by the teachers interviewed to describe the atmosphere prevalent during their involvement with the maths clubs. Accordingly, the findings and discussion in this paper reflect on some of the reasons that led to the ‘relaxation’ among the participants, culminating in improved learner performance reflected in the post-intervention assessment results.

In this study, the responses from the one-on-one interviews with the nine participant-teachers who agreed to be interviewed and the observations made by the primary researcher throughout the fifteen weeks of the action research project are used as the basis to tease out and ‘appreciate’ the factors that enabled the success of the mathematics clubs which formed part of this study. The following aspects standout as key enablers of the ‘relaxed’ atmosphere and, by extension, the effectiveness of the mathematics clubs in this study, namely: play-based pedagogy, flexible language, learner-generated problem-solving methods, collegiality and classroom size. Accordingly, the following is a brief appreciation of these aspects as seen through the lenses of participant–teachers and the primary investigator.

Undoubtedly, as highlighted in the preceding findings, there are substantive factors that enabled the success of the maths clubs in this study. Significantly, as illustrated in this section, these findings corroborate numerous findings from studies, globally.

It should be evident from the preceding points that the use of games, interspersed with well-designed and learner-friendly, thought-provoking workbooks as the main LTSMs in mathematics, provided learners with, virtually, infinite possibilities to learn meaningfully while enjoying themselves in the process. For this reason, maths clubs deserve appreciation as they foster opportunities for learning. Furthermore, they prove(d) to be safe spaces for education because they encourage(d) relaxation and thereby optimise(d) meaningful mathematical learning. Hence, (Murtagh et al., 2022) write that, “to optimise learning, children must engage in playful learning in which they are facilitated with fun child-centred opportunities to explore and discover while being scaffolded, guided, supported and provided with feedback towards a learning outcome” (p. 409).

In the same breath, Vygotsky’s sociocultural framework attaches a lot of significance to the role played by language as the main vehicle for intrapersonal and interpersonal interaction, learning and cognitive development. This is applicable to children and adults alike. For this reason, (Vygotsky, 1986) asserts that there is “the fusion of thought and speech in adults as well as in children” (p. 89). It stands to reason, therefore, that for meaningful learning to take place, children need to interact with peers and teachers at social level while, simultaneously, processing their thoughts and, ultimately, assign meaning to their experiences through inner thoughts propelled by language. Accordingly, (Vygotsky, 1986) argues that:

Thought development is determined by language, i.e. by the linguistic tools of thought and by the socio–cultural experiences of the child. Essentially, the development of inner speech depends on outside factors; the development of logic in the child...is a direct function of socialised speech. The child’s intellectual growth is contingent on his mastering of the social means of thought, that is, language (p. 94).

Therefore, the approach to language use in the current study enhanced relaxation, ease of communication and enjoyment of mathematics for learners. Notably, code-switching, as one of the vehicles used occasionally by learners in this study, is supported by various scholars as an essential vehicle to enable learning. For example, (Setati et al., 2002) assert that “code-switching is a language practice that could support classroom communication in general and the exploratory talk that is such a necessary part of learning” (p. 133). Likewise, in the study with focus on the role of language in mathematical performance in Australian classrooms,(Norén, 2015) found that code-switching between Vietnamese and English enabled the students of Vietnamese origin, to perform exceptionally well in mathematics. Accordingly, in the current study, the teachers and the primary researcher were mindful of “language’s power to either include or exclude certain groups of students from opportunities for genuine engagement with, and participation in school mathematics” (Robertson & (Robertson & Graven, 2020). For this reason, they appreciated and enabled the use of more than one language to facilitate the ease of mathematical learning and enjoyment in the maths clubs.

Apart from the facilitation of pedagogical processes using familiar languages, the infusion of real-life scenarios in mathematical problems also aided the learning and teaching processes in the maths clubs. Significantly, the use of various games further enhanced meaningful learning and created excitement and fun within the learning space, culminating in the enjoyment of learning mathematics. Subsequently, a notable improvement in learner performance was recorded as measured through the post-assessment results. The preceding point gels with (Mani, 2015) assertion that, when used correctly, maths games can enhance the logical thinking of learners and “build upon their everyday understandings” (p. 74) of lived experiences. Likewise, this validates the claims by (Lampen & Brodie, 2020) that mathematics should help “support connections with learner’s everyday lives realities and reasoning” (p. 13). Furthermore, this observation amplifies the assertions by Diez-Palomar et al., (2006) that mathematical learning should be linked to the lived experiences of learners. These authors write that, “recent research shows that an individual’s home, related to history and the social context, is the source of funds of knowledge that students could potentially bring to learning situations if the learning environment encouraged it” (Diez-Palomar et al., 2006, p. 451).

As stated in the findings, another key enabler of success in the maths clubs of the current study was the collaboration and collegiality among the participants, both the participant-learners and participants-teachers. The collegiality and collaboration among the participants cohere with the established practices that are adopted and pursued by math clubs, globally. This collaboration among participants is, ostensibly, enabled by the stress-free nature of math clubs and the understanding that teamwork brings about success. The preceding claims accentuate the point made earlier in this paper that, “through their low stress environment, clubs enable students to learn about teamwork and the importance of cooperation and mutual support” (Papanastasiou et al., 2004). Similarly, these assertions cement the observation by (Brodie, 2022) that within the space of maths clubs, learners “enjoyed the social interaction and the mathematical collaboration around challenging problems” (p. 245). In the same breath, (Norén, 2015) suggestion that the sharing of experiences and good practices among facilitators in maths clubs amount to “reform-oriented discourse characterised by emphasis on communication and collaboration” (p. 173) is apt in the context of the current study.

Also worth noting is that classroom overcrowding is one of the challenges hindering meaningful and impactful pedagogy in most South African schools, especially, in underprivileged communities such as the one in which the current study was conducted. The norms and standards of the South African National Department of Basic Education recommend that, ideally, the teacher to learner ratio should be 1: 40 at primary school level (Hart, 2023). However, anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that most primary schools have a minimum ratio of about 1: 50 with some schools having a ratio of 1: 70 or even double the ratio recommended by the department of education (Hart, 2023); (Venketsamy, 2023). Inevitably, learner overcrowding in classrooms poses a plethora of challenges including, inter alia, insufficient Learning and Teaching Support Materials (LTSMs), difficult teacher and leaner mobility, constrained relaxation and freedom in the classroom, decline in learner concentration, inadequate furniture, lack of motivation and concentration by learners, challenges in the formation of learner teams and groups, virtually, non-existent individualised attention per learner and poor learner performance (Ayanwoye, 2023); (Oruikor et al., 2023), (Venketsamy, 2023). Invariably, all these and other challenges hamper the kind of relaxation and active experiential learning required in an ideal learning space and, thereby, contribute to poor learner performance (Rands & Gansemer-Topf, 2017)

However, as already stated, just like in many countries where they occur, the maths clubs in this study were designed to enable effectiveness by ensuring that the learner numbers were manageable. This was made possible by enlisting fewer learners, ensuring that the teacher-learner ratio was lower than the national setting in South African public schools. For this reason, the maths clubs were a success, mainly, due to the teachers being able to give each learner maximum support and individual attention while also enabling free and easy interaction among the learners. Consequently, as stated numerously in this text, there was measurable improvement in learner performance as discernible from the juxtaposition of pre-assessment and post-assessment results.

The paper sought to tease out the factors that enabled an improvement in mathematical performance resulting from an interventionary programme developed for selected Grade 3 learners in a mathematics club setting. This exercise was prompted by the paucity of research that focuses on the factors that enable success in maths clubs. Numerous factors were identified as affordances of success in the maths clubs that formed part of the current study. These factors included, play-based pedagogy, flexible language usage, collaboration among participants, the use of real-life experiences in pedagogy and small and manageable classroom sizes. Accordingly, based on these findings, arguably, an improvement in mathematical attainment, commencing from lower classes, could be realised if regular everyday classrooms are designed or modelled in line with maths clubs. Nevertheless, this ideal could only be accomplished through concerted investment on time, money and resources aimed at creating relaxed and enabling pedagogical atmospheres within formal pedagogical spaces.

Furthermore, owing to the dearth of research that focuses on identifying factors that support efficacious pedagogical practices in mathematics clubs, more studies need to be conducted within this realm. Conceivably, a vigorous uptake of enquiries in this under-researched area coupled with meaningful engagements with various stakeholders might yield positive results, culminating in an overall improvement in mathematics education – a subject considered the heartbeat of STEM education.

The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the reviewers whose insightful and constructive critical reviews meaningfully contributed to the refinement and improvement of this paper.