This paper is underpinned by the Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory that argues that educators can use applications of zone of proximal development (ZPD) and engage children in play activities that integrate cultural tools and social interaction to teach mathematics. ZPD refers to the gap between actual and potential learning as measured by an individual’s independence when solving mathematical problems (Kusmaryono et al., 2021). (Gehlot, 2021) also stated that it is only through collaboration with adults and other learners that this gap can be closed through play-based activities that integrate culture and social interactions. In the context of mathematics learning in South Africa, an educator’s role is to assist learners in developing problem-solving skills and using play-based pedagogy that appreciates African culture in digital learning (DBE; 2011; (Ling & Mahmud, 2023)). As such, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory offers a robust framework for the integration of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP. This approach demonstrates how Africanised play can be integrated with digital or digital content to enhance learners' mathematical skills.

Cultural activities play an essential role in mathematics content areas such as numbers, operations and relationships, as well as geometry in the FP. From the researcher’s perspective, the role of cultural activities in these content areas is to promote learners’ problem-solving skills. This is supported by several researchers, such as (Acharya et al., 2021), (Brandt & Chernoff, 2015), and (Rosa & Orey, 2019), that the role of integrating cultural activities in the classroom is to develop learners’ problem-solving skills in mathematics. (Brandt & Chernoff, 2015) further advised that mathematics educators should incorporate cultural activities into their lesson plans. In addition,(Fouze & Amit, 2017) agreed that playing African games helps develop problem-solving skills and mathematical thinking that help in teaching and learning mathematics.(Acharya et al., 2021) concluded that one way of decolonising education and transforming the curriculum is by infusing cultural rituals, artefacts and cultural play to teach basic-level mathematics. Through examining how Africanised games can support the teaching and learning of mathematics, it is the intention of the researcher to motivate the integration of Africanised play into the digital learning of mathematics in the FP.

Empirical studies from North America, Zimbabwe and South Africa were reviewed to understand the integration of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP. These countries have similar mathematics education in the FP to South Africa. The first section explores how other researchers integrate Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics while the following section reviews the role of Africanised play and digital learning of mathematics in the FP.

(Golafshani, 2023) study explored the use of indigenous storytelling in planning and teaching mathematical content in the northern region of Ontario, Canada. A phenomenological case study methodology was employed by (Golafshani, 2023) to view the experiences of 20 Grade 1 learners and two elementary teachers on implementing indigenous storytelling in the planning and teaching of mathematical content from public primary schools through record observations. Failing to select multiple elementary teachers from different schools may have limited the credibility of the study’s findings. Nonetheless, (Golafshani, 2023) found that indigenous storytelling helps children learn abstract mathematical concepts related to their own real-world experiences. (Golafshani, 2023) also concluded that educators can use dice games to encourage interaction between learners in teaching mathematics content. Even though (Golafshani, 2023) did not integrate digital learning, the researcher understands that dice can be played by young learners using digital tools to learn mathematics. Linking the findings of (Golafshani, 2023) with the theoretical framework of this study shows that Africanised play-based activities that use dice games could be used to teach abstract mathematical concepts as they promote social interaction and cultural awareness.

(Sunzuma & Luneta, 2023) study was conducted in Zimbabwe based on implementing an digital learner-centred strategy in teaching mathematics. Using a case-study research design, documents, interviews and lesson observation were used to collect rich field notes from four pre-service teachers. Their findings showed that learner-centred methods were used in group work and pairing sessions. Even with this, Sunzama and Lueta (2023) found that digital mathematics teaching still needs to be improved. Although (Sunzuma & Luneta, 2023) findings may be interesting, it should be noted that the participants need to be more experienced in teaching mathematics. Considering this, the theoretical framework of this study and the findings of (Sunzuma & Luneta, 2023) study highlight the importance of teaching mathematics digital.

(Galawe, 2023) investigated the use of indigenous games in teaching geometric patterns in mathematics in the Intermediate Phase (Grades 4–6). With an explanatory sequential approach, questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data from Free State. (Galawe, 2023) found that the use of indigenous games teaches learners geometric patterns. However, his findings were that educators do not apply the ZPD in teaching and learning geometric patterns. This contradicts the DBE’s (2011) emphasis on the use of learner-centred rather than teacher-centred approaches.

Several previous researchers such as (Chirinda, 2021), (Lunga et al., 2022), and (Matsekoleng et al., 2024) have reported that the role of Africanised play and digital learning of mathematics is to develop problem-solving skills. (Chirinda, 2021) indicates that using African play improves learners’ problem-solving skills in mathematics. (Lunga et al., 2022) added that play-based pedagogy integrating African culture supports learners’ critical, creative, problem-solving, logical and analytical skills in mathematics. Masemola et al. (2022) added that during Africanised play-based learning, learners can solve complex mathematical problems. It is against this backdrop, the theoretical framework underpinning this study posits that integrating Africanised play activities into digital learning of mathematics in the FP can develop learners’ mathematical concepts. In addition, the use of the ZPD is encouraged to promote social interaction among learners and enhance their mathematical skills.

The promotion of counting skills was mentioned again by S1FPE1, S2FPE1, S2FPE2, S2FPE3 and S3FPE1. Other educators proposed various outcomes, including improving counting skills, mathematical thinking skills, long-term memory and excitement for mathematics-related activities. A follow-up question (Question 15) asked educators to give their views and experiences on the function that Africanised play-based pedagogy serves in teaching FP learners mental mathematics digital. S2FPE1, S2FPE3, S3FPE1, S3FPE3 and S1FPE2 said this phenomenon could develop learners’ counting skills. S1FPE2 said:

The development of problem-solving skills was brought up again when S1FPE1 highlighted:

Nevertheless, S2FPE2 was at a loss for words when explaining it. A pause ensued before the following was said:

From S1FPE3’s classroom, Africanised play-based pedagogy (Sudoku game) assisted in developing problem-solving skills. Mathematical thinking skills, counting skills, social interaction and enthusiasm were evident, among other roles. Most, if not all, of the learners achieved full marks. The learners engaged in the Tsheretshere game and developed mathematical thinking and counting skills as they played it in S2FPE3’s classroom. The development of problem-solving, socialisation and mathematical thinking skills was evident in S3FPE3’s classroom. After watching the video of the Diketo game on the screen, learners played the game physically, following the rules. The learners could perform number patterns. However, learners needed help to get all the marks for the class activity.

The experiential statements from S4FPE2, S1FPE1, and S1FPE3 are provided in full for close reading and engagement of participants on the role of Africanised play-based pedagogy in the digital teaching of mental mathematics to FP learners. S1FPE1 and S2FPE3 clarified that their role was to help learners build their ability to solve mathematical problems. S1FPE1 described their experiences:

Conversely, S1FPE2 and S2FPE1 discussed that Africanised play-based pedagogy develops learners’ social skills in the classroom. S3FPE1 and S4FPE2 substantiated the development of technology skills in learners through digital mathematics teaching to FP learners. S1FPE3 brought up an appreciation of culture and identity. S1FPE3 distinguished between learners who showed technological and cultural intelligence during conversations. S1FPE3 provided evidence for this:

In Question 15, educators were questioned about the roles of integrating African games in teaching mathematics in their past experiences. S1FPE2, S1FPE3, S4FPE2 and S4FPE3 said they extended learners’ memory in teaching mathematics. S1FPE3 mentioned that they used to look down on African games in teaching mathematics in the FP. S1FPE3 verbalised:

Educators raised the challenge of the lack of technological devices to use Africanised play to teach mathematics to FP learners. Learners from S1 had tablets from Grades 1 to 3. However, educators did not have individual laptops, and the school shared only one smart classroom. Learners from S2 did not have tablets, but they had access to a computer laboratory. The educators from this school had laptops; each class had a smartboard, while every building block had a hub. When asked a probing question during the interviews about where they acquired knowledge of digital teaching platforms in the FP, S2FPE2 replied:

These participants could access the school WI-FI in their classrooms. S3 learners had tablets even though they were limited; their school had projectors, and educators had laptops. Learners from S4 had tablets, but they were limited; the educators could not access the school’s WI-FI.The results presented in the previous section are discussed through the reviewed literature and lens of Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory as the theoretical framework underpinning this study. The researchers used themes to discuss how social interaction, cultural tools, and the ZPD play crucial roles in learning. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that learning is inherently social and culturally embedded, which can be directly related to the educators' integration of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP(Vygotsky, 1967).

The findings from the revealed that educators promote counting and mental mathematics skills by integrating Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP. They use of digital games that incorporate African culture, such as Ludo, Morabaraba, and Sudoku, to develop learners' counting and problem-solving skills aligns with Vygotsky's concept that learning occurs through social interaction. The literature from (Golafshani, 2023) support that when learners play dice games, they develop mathematical concepts as it promotes social interaction and cultural awareness. Even though (Galawe, 2023) did not specify social interaction, their study indicate that Africanised play can teach geometrical skills. In the same vein, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory corroborates that the participants need to use social interaction and cultural tools to improve learners’ counting, mental mathematics and geometry skills through digital games in the FP. In addition, (Gehlot, 2021) agreed that the social interaction that was promoted within this approach closed the gap in FP learners’ mathematical understanding. The findings showed that other than promotion of counting and mental mathematics skills, the integration of cultural tools such as digital learning into mathematics enhances mathematical and problem-solving skills. The reviewed literature from(Acharya et al., 2021) corroborates that including cultural rituals, artefacts and cultural play in teaching mathematics at low levels need an incorporation of cultural tools and mediated learning. For instance, the use of traditional games like Morabaraba in a digital format allows learners to connect their cultural knowledge with mathematical thinking, thus making the learning experience more meaningful and contextually relevant.

The findings showed that other than promotion of counting and mental mathematics skills, the integration of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP, this approach enhances mathematical and problem-solving skills. The literature from (Matsekoleng et al., 2024) and Russo et al. (2021) corroborated the findings of this study that the role of cultural activities in teaching and learning mathematics is to develop learners’ problem-solving skills. In the same vein, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory supports that using ZPD activities that integrate Africanised play and digital skills can improve learners’ mathematical and problem-solving skills. In the same vein, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory corroborates that teachers need to use the ZPD to improve learners’ counting, mental mathematics and geometry skills through digital games in the FP. The researchers agree that these games provide a platform for learners to engage with their peers, discuss strategies, and collaborate on solving mathematical problems. This interaction helps learners internalize mathematical concepts and promotes social skills, as observed in the classrooms where learners interacted with others while engaging in these culturally relevant games.

The findings also highlight how integrating Africanised play in digital learning supports cognitive development, particularly in problem-solving, counting, and mathematical thinking. Vygotsky's theory suggests that cognitive development is deeply connected to social and cultural contexts. The emphasis on cultural identity, as seen in S1FPE3's observation that learners showed technological and cultural intelligence, reinforces the idea that learning is a culturally situated process. The literature from Masemola et al. (2022) indicated for learners to solve complex mathematical problems they need cognitive and social skills. The researchers view that by incorporating African games into mathematics education, educators help learners develop a stronger sense of identity and cultural pride, which Vygotsky would argue is essential for holistic cognitive development.

The findings demonstrated that educators have a challenge with access to digital devices to integrate Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP. In contrast, the literature from (Matsekoleng et al., 2024) showed that for a successful implementation of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics, FP educators need some knowledge of how to use technological devices. The theoretical framework supports that the application of ZPD should integrate play activities, digital learning, culture and social interaction.

The study revealed that educators’ lesson planning could be more satisfactory because their copies of lesson plans must demonstrate the integration of Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics in the FP. Only S3FPE3 planned a lesson on a government website, with available digital resources. Brandt and (Brandt & Chernoff, 2015) proposed that mathematics educators can include cultural activities into their lesson planning. As a result, the challenges identified, such as the lack of digital devices and limited knowledge of planning lessons, can be viewed through Vygotsky's socio-cultural lens as barriers to accessing the full range of cultural tools necessary for learning. The disparity in resources between schools underscores the importance of equitable access to technology, which is crucial for implementing culturally relevant pedagogy. Vygotsky would likely argue that overcoming these barriers is essential to ensure that all learners have the opportunity to engage in meaningful, culturally grounded learning experiences.

This paper makes a significant contribution to the growing literature on the integration of culturally relevant pedagogies and digital learning in early mathematics education. By exploring how FP educators integrate Africanised play into digital learning of mathematics, this study reveals fundamental perceptions into pedagogical approaches and theoretical implications. Firstly, this study a practical lens of using Africanised play-based pedagogical approaches into digital learning of mathematics that enhances young learners’ problem-solving and mental-maths skills. The participants shared their lived experiences of using digital games that incorporates African culture such as Ludo, Morabaraba, and Sudoku to develop mathematical concepts to FP learners. However, viewed through Vygotsky’s lens, limited access to digital devices serves as a barrier of integration of Africanised play into digital learning of early mathematics. In addition, there is still a challenge of integrating these practical approaches into lesson planning and classroom practices. As a result, the authors suggest that FP educators can be guided by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in planning of lessons and implementation in their mathematics classrooms.