The mathematical problem-solving skill is one of the objectives of mathematics learning listed in the curriculum. Based on these objectives, mathematical problem-solving skills are part of the independent curriculum and should be considered in the learning process. Mathematical problem-solving skills are among the essential competencies for students learning mathematics ((Amalina & Vidákovich, 2023); (Nugraheni & Marsigit, 2021); (Olivares et al., 2021)). This skill falls under the category of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), which need to be developed ((Hodiyanto & Firdaus, 2020); (Miri et al., 2007)). However, studies have shown that students experience difficulties in solving problems related to mathematical problem-solving ((Hodiyanto & Firdaus, 2020); (Risnawati et al., 2018); (Salemeh & Etchells, 2016)), and students’ mathematical problem-solving skills are still

classified as low ((Salam et al., 2024); (Wahyuni et al., 2025)). One cause of this low skill is the suboptimal use of learning media, especially Android-based learning media (Yani et al., 2022). Next, the researchers conducted a preliminary study in one of the public junior high schools in Pontianak.

The results of an interview with a mathematics teacher at one of state secondary schools in Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, revealed that students continue to struggle with solving mathematical problems, particularly those related to pyramids. To strengthen the interview results, the researchers administered a mathematical problem-solving skill test to one class of ninth-grade students at one of secondary schools Pontianak who had studied the pyramid material, and the average score obtained was 28.28. They then selected a sample of students’ answers, which are presented in Figure 1.

Based on the pre-assessment results shown in Figure 1, students did not initially understand the information provided in the problem and the questions posed. Students also made mistakes in determining the correct formula to use, resulting in incorrect calculations. The students’ answers indicate a lack of problem-solving skills, as they struggled to understand the information provided and the information required in the problem. Additionally, students made mistakes in selecting the correct formula and failed to double-check their answers, which ultimately affected their calculations and the accuracy of the final results.

Furthermore, interviews with teachers at one of state secondary schools in Pontianak revealed that one of the causes of students’ low mathematical problem-solving skills is the inadequate media used in mathematics learning. Mobile phones are used to support the learning process through WhatsApp groups and Google Classroom, which serve as media for delivering learning materials. Mobile phones are primarily used to share information rather than to enhance students’ mathematical problem-solving skills. Teachers at school have used m-learning, but it has not yet been optimised, so it has not yet improved students'’problem-solving skills. Moreover, mathematics is an abstract subject, so interactive media are needed to help students understand these concepts more easily. The use of appropriate media in the learning process can help students visualise abstract mathematical concepts (Lapele & Papalia, 2025). One learning media that can be developed is m-learning, which utilises smartphone/Android technology (Amsyar et al., 2022). M-learning is a form of learning that can be done anywhere, by anyone, and at any time, making it easy for students to acquire knowledge ((Naveed et al., 2023); (Qazi et al., 2024)). Additionally, the Systematic Literature Review provided recommendations for developing smartphone- and Android-based learning media to enhance mathematical problem-solving skills (Teapon & Kusumah, 2023).

Although a growing body of research has developed mobile learning (m-learning) media in mathematics learning ((Apricillia et al., 2024); (Fabian et al., 2018); (Fahmi & Qohar, 2023); (Jelatu et al., 2019); (Murtiyasa et al., 2020)), these initiatives were not explicitly oriented toward developing problem-solving skills. (Yani et al., 2021) developed an Android-based m-learning medium for mathematics, yet their work did not incorporate ethnomathematical content, leaving a gap in culturally grounded mobile learning for problem-solving. Previous research also found that ethnomathematics-based mathematics modules are effective in improving problem-solving skills (Andang et al., 2025). In that study, the medium took the form of a module, whereas the present study develops an Android-based m-learning application. To date, no study has systematically developed Android-based m-learning media that draws specifically on Pontianak's local cultural heritage—such as ketupat, patlau, and pengkang—to cultivate problem-solving skills in geometry. (Firdaus & Hodiyanto, 2019) and (Hodiyanto et al., 2022) found that many traditions or cultures in West Kalimantan contain mathematical elements that can be utilised in the learning process, as well as the potential to integrate digital cultural media into mathematics education in Indonesia  (Sunzuma & Umbara, 2025). This gap becomes even more evident when considered alongside the broader ethnomathematics literature.

In the broader literature, integrating ethnomathematics into digital learning environments has shown considerable promise across diverse educational contexts. Most studies confirm that the integration of ethnomathematics into Android-based or digital media can enhance students' mathematical problem-solving abilities, engagement, and cultural appreciation across various educational levels and cultural contexts ((Andang et al., 2025); (Andang & Hadi, 2025); (Novitasari & Walid, 2022)). Some studies also explore augmented reality and interactive media, further supporting the potential of technology-enhanced ethnomathematics learning (Jampel & Antara, 2025). While these findings collectively affirm the pedagogical value of ethnomathematics, a critical gap persists: no prior study has integrated ethnomathematics drawn from Pontianak's local culture into an Android-based m-learning platform specifically designed to foster problem-solving skills. The gap in the literature regarding integrating ethnomathematics into Android-based learning media to improve students’ problem-solving skills stems from a lack of robust, empirical evidence linking ethnomathematics, Android-based learning media, and problem-solving skills. The direct, empirical link and the in-depth mechanism by which a specific Android-based ethnomathematics application enhances problem-solving remain areas requiring further focused investigation. The present study directly addresses this gap by designing and developing an Android-based m-learning platform that integrates Pontianak’s ethnomathematical heritage to cultivate students’ mathematical problem-solving skills.

This study is directed toward three principal objectives. The first objective seeks to examine the extent to which the Android-based interactive m-learning media embedded with ethnomathematics elements fulfil the validity criteria as an instructional tool designed to cultivate mathematical problem-solving skills in geometry learning, particularly on the topics of prisms and pyramids. The second objective is to investigate the extent to which the developed media are practical when deployed in real classroom settings to facilitate learners’ mathematical problem-solving skills in geometry, specifically prisms and pyramids. The third objective aims to evaluate the extent to which the Android-based interactive m-learning media with ethnomathematics integration is effective in fostering and strengthening mathematical problem-solving competencies among learners throughout the geometry learning of prisms and pyramids. In alignment with these objectives, the following research questions are posed: (1) To what extent does the Android-based interactive m-learning media with ethnomathematics integration satisfy the validity standards required for enhancing mathematical problem-solving skills in geometry learning of prisms and pyramids? (2) In what manner does the developed media exhibit practicality in supporting learners’ mathematical problem-solving skills during geometry learning of prisms and pyramids? (3) To what degree is the Android-based interactive m-learning media with ethnomathematics integration regarded as effective in nurturing mathematical problem-solving competencies within geometry learning of prisms and pyramids?

This study adopted a Research and Development (R&D) approach to develop an interactive Android-based Mobile Learning (M-Learning) medium that incorporates ethnomathematics using the Smart Apps Creator (SAC) platform for geometry topics on prisms and pyramids. The

development framework applied was the Four-D Model (4D) introduced by Thiagarajan et al. 1974(), comprising four sequential stages: Define, Design, Develop, and Disseminate. This model was selected for its systematic, structured nature, ensuring that the resulting product meets the criteria of validity, practicality, and effectiveness required for meaningful classroom application. It should be noted that the Disseminate stage was only partially executed owing to research time constraints; specifically, only the packaging and limited dissemination sub-stages were completed, while broader field validation testing is proposed as a direction for future research.

The Define stage aimed to determine and specify the learning needs. This stage included several analyses. The front-end analysis was conducted to identify problems in mathematics learning, particularly in the topic of solid figures (prisms and pyramids). The learner analysis examined students’ characteristics, prior knowledge, and motivation for learning mathematics. The task analysis identified the essential competencies to be mastered, including identifying elements, calculating the surface area and volume of prisms and pyramids, and applying these concepts to real-world contexts. The concept analysis explored the interrelation of geometric concepts and identified opportunities to integrate local cultural elements. Based on these analyses, the instructional objectives were specified to ensure that the learning process aligned with learners’ needs. This stage was analytical and conceptual, serving as the foundation for subsequent media design.

The Design stage aimed to translate the analytical findings into a concrete instructional product. Three primary activities were undertaken during this stage. First, research instruments were developed, including a mathematical problem-solving skill test to assess the effectiveness of the media, expert validation sheets to evaluate the validity of the media, and teacher and student response questionnaires to measure the practicality of the media. The problem-solving skill test consisted of four essay items, each constructed based on Polya’s problem-solving indicators: understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back. Each item carried a maximum score of 12 points. Content validity of the instruments was examined through expert review, and reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha to ensure internal consistency. The instruments were validated by two material experts and one educational evaluation expert prior to use. Validation assessed indicator suitability, clarity of wording, cultural relevance, and alignment with learning objectives. The validation results indicated that all instruments achieved a very high level of validity, as presented in Table 1.

The average score of 91.25% indicates that all instruments were highly valid and suitable for use in the development stage. The validators suggested simplifying some question wordings and increasing the variety of cultural contexts to make the instruments more representative of students’ real-life experiences. Furthermore, the results of the empirical validation and reliability analyses for the four problem-solving skill test items are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that each test item has a validity value (correlation coefficient) above 0.9, indicating that each item is highly valid. In addition, the instrument has a reliability coefficient of 0.78, indicating it is reliable and consistent in measuring the intended construct. The empirical validity and reliability of the questionnaire are not provided, as it is intended to assess the practicality of the media; these will be established after a small-scale trial. Although four test items were initially developed and empirically validated, only three were retained as the final research instrument. The three retained items were deemed sufficient to comprehensively measure students’ mathematical problem-solving competencies across the targeted learning objectives. The structure and item distribution of the expert validation sheets for media and the response questionnaire are presented in Table 3. Each instrument was rated using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good).

Second, the selection of media and format involved choosing Smart Apps Creator (SAC). SAC was selected as the development platform for its ability to produce Android applications that are accessible offline and feature engaging visual displays, without requiring specialised programming expertise. Third, an initial productdesign was constructed, encompassing the media layout, navigational structure, and learning content—including concept introductions, contextual exercises, self-evaluation activities, and the integration of ethnomathematical elements drawn from Pontianak’s local culture, such as ketupat, patlau, and pengkang. The media was structured around seven sequential sections: (1) Instruction, providing orientation to the application and guiding students on how to navigate and operate each available feature; (2) Profile, presenting information about the developer and the academic context in which the media was developed; (3) Learning Objectives, outlining the Core Competencies and Achievement Indicators aligned with the national curriculum, ensuring students understand the expected learning outcomes before engaging with the main content; (4) Material, presenting concepts of prisms and pyramids through text, images, and 3D animations, with ethnomathematical examples embedded throughout; (5) Video, providing supplementary audio-visual content to reinforce students' conceptual understanding of prisms and pyramids, while accommodating visual and auditory learning styles; (6) Exercises, offering contextual problem-solving tasks grounded in local cultural artefacts; and (7) Quiz, comprising a self-assessment quiz with immediate corrective feedback. The learning flow was designed to guide students sequentially from the Instruction section through to Evaluation, with "Next" and "Back" navigation buttons on each page. A Home button was also included on every screen to allow non-linear navigation when needed. The interface adopted a dominant soft blue and orange colour scheme, selected to create a cheerful and stimulating visual environment appropriate for junior high school students. All content was designed to run offline on Android devices, ensuring accessibility regardless of internet connectivity.

The Develop stage aimed to produce a feasible and high-quality learning product through expert validation, revision, and limited trials. During the expert appraisal, the media were evaluated by three material experts and three media experts to assess content accuracy, visual design, language, and the integration of ethnomathematical elements. Based on their suggestions, several revisions were made to improve the product’s readability and usability. Subsequently, a developmental test was conducted involving one mathematics teacher and ten eighth-grade students to obtain data on the practicality and effectiveness of the media. The data obtained from this stage were analysed to determine the product’s feasibility, and the results are presented in the Results section.

The Disseminate stage aimed to introduce and distribute the developed media to potential users. Due to the limited research duration, only two sub-stages were completed: packaging (final product refinement) and diffusion and adoption (limited dissemination). In the Packaging sub-stage, the product was refined based on expert validation and trial results, including improving the interface, navigation, and user guidelines. In the diffusion and adoption sub-stage, the product was disseminated to mathematics teachers through a brief training session and classroom implementation support. The Validation Testing (Wider Field Testing) sub-stage was not conducted and is recommended for future research to examine the product’s feasibility on a broader scale.

The research subjects consisted of three material expert validators, three media expert validators, one mathematics teacher, and ten eighth-grade students. The subjects were selected purposively based on their involvement in the learning process and product development. The sample in this study consisted of students who had already learned plane geometry but had not yet studied solid figures (prisms and pyramids), and who were willing to participate as research subjects. The sample included only 10 students because the study was still in a small-scale trial phase, allowing it to be continued later on a larger scale. Data were analysed using descriptive quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative analysis was used to calculate the average scores of validity, practicality, and effectiveness.

The media were considered valid if the average score was at least 81%; they fell into the very valid category and had been revised in accordance with the validators' suggestions. The media were considered practical if the average score reached at least 81% and were deemed easy to use by both teachers and students without significant difficulties. Furthermore, the media were considered effective if the average student learning outcomes increased and at least 65% of students achieved a score ≥ 80 (the Minimum Mastery Criterion) (Hodiyanto et al., 2020). Furthermore, the medium is considered effective if students' posttest mathematical problem-solving skills are better than their pretest skills. The pretest and posttest results were compared using a paired t-test in Excel, after the data were confirmed to be normally distributed by the Lilliefors test.

The results of the study show that the Android-based interactive learning media integrated with ethnomathematics developed in this research demonstrate very high validity, practicality, and effectiveness, making it feasible for use in mathematics learning at the junior high school level. Based on validation by three expert validators, the overall average validity score was 95.33%, placing it in the very valid category. The material aspect achieved an average of 93.40%, while the media aspect reached 97.25%. These results indicate that the media meet the criteria for content accuracy, communicative language, and an appealing and easy-to-understand design. Such a high level of validity ensures that the media aligns well with students' characteristics and learning objectives, making it an effective tool for improving students' conceptual understanding. This finding is consistent with (Nasution & Lailia, 2023), (Andang et al., 2025), and (Dwijayani, 2019), who stated that well-validated educational media significantly contribute to the success of mathematics learning, particularly in enhancing conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. Similarly, Emphasised that strong expert validation of digital learning media has a direct positive impact on student engagement and learning outcomes ((Liliana et al., 2020); (Sappaile et al., 2023)).

In addition to validity, the media also demonstrated high practicality. Based on teacher and student response questionnaires, the average score was 93.95%, categorised as very practical. Teachers found the media easy to use, efficient in supporting learning activities, and effective in transforming abstract material into more concrete, context-specific forms. Students also reported that the media was engaging, easy to understand, and capable of fostering their interest in learning. This high level of practicality indicates that the media is not only valid in terms of content but also effective in real classroom implementation. This finding is supported by previous research showing that ease of use of digital learning media directly contributes to increased student motivation and understanding of mathematical concepts ((Dewi et al., 2024); (Rachmavita, 2020)). Android-based interactive learning media can improve students' mathematical problem-solving skills (Yani et al., 2021).

The effectiveness test results revealed a significant improvement in students’ mathematical problem-solving skills. Based on the paired t-test results, there was a statistically significant difference between the average pretest score (51.11) and posttest score (90.83), with a p-value = 0.00000034 < 0.05. This improvement indicates that the Android-based interactive learning media had a significant positive impact on students’ skills to understand and solve mathematical problems. The interactive features encouraged students to actively explore concepts through simulations, exercises, and quizzes that provided immediate feedback. This result aligns with the idea that technology-based interactive learning enhances higher-order thinking skills, including problem-solving ((Alghamdi, 2025); (Cheng et al., 2023); (Setyaningrum et al., 2024)).

The huge effect size obtained in this study (Cohen’s d = 3.09) warrants critical examination. Several meta-analyses have confirmed that ethnomathematics-based learning generally exerts a significant influence on students’ mathematical problem-solving skills (Wirawan et al., 2024), on geometry learning at the junior high school level (Istia et al., 2025), and on mathematics achievement more broadly (Sulistyowati, 2024). Nevertheless, the magnitude of effects reported across studies varies depending on the type of media employed, the research design, sample characteristics, and the cultural context integrated into the learning process. The exceptionally high value obtained in the present study may be attributable to several distinctive features of the developed media. First, the in-app quiz system provided immediate corrective feedback, enabling students to identify and rectify misconceptions in real time rather than allowing errors to persist across sessions. Second, the three-dimensional animations of local cultural artefacts—ketupat, patlau, and pengkang—offered dynamic spatial representations of prisms and pyramids that static media cannot replicate. Third, the application's offline-accessible format allowed students to revisit instructional content independently outside formal classroom hours. Nevertheless, these results must be interpreted with caution, given that the study involved only 10 students in a small-scale pilot trial without a comparison group, so the very large effect size cannot yet be generalised. Future research employing larger samples and controlled experimental designs is therefore necessary to verify the consistency of these findings.

The success of this learning media is also closely linked to the crucial role of ethnomathematics in bridging abstract mathematical concepts with students’ real-life contexts. Mathematics is inherently abstract—concepts such as geometric solids, volume, and surface area are often difficult for students to grasp because they are detached from direct experience. Therefore, an approach that connects these abstract concepts to daily life is necessary. Ethnomathematics serves as a bridge linking cultural knowledge with formal mathematical concepts, helping students uncover the meaning behind symbols and formulas through contexts familiar to them. In the developed media, local cultural objects such as ketupat and pengkang were used as tangible representations of geometric shapes, allowing students to identify components like faces, edges, and vertices concretely. This finding aligns with previous research suggesting that integrating local cultural contexts into mathematics learning strengthens conceptual understanding and increases student motivation ((Khasanah et al., 2025); (Leton et al., 2025)). The embedding of ethnomathematics within digital media enhances the meaningfulness of learning by connecting students’ cultural experiences to formal mathematical structures ((Supriyadi et al., 2024); (Wulandari et al., 2024)). Similarly, (Fouze & Amit, 2017) and (Sari et al., 2023) emphasised that because mathematics is abstract, a "cultural bridge" is essential to help students internalise these concepts through cultural experiences, and the ethnomathematical approach has proven effective in bridging this gap.

Beyond the cultural bridge, improvements in students’ problem-solving skills can also be explained by the structural alignment between the media’s design and Polya’s problem-solving framework. Each exercise and evaluation item within the application was explicitly constructed to guide students through four problem-solving stages: understanding the problem, devising a solution plan, executing the plan, and reviewing the result. Rather than presenting problems without guidance, the media scaffolded each stage visually, prompting students to record known information, select appropriate formulas, and verify their calculations before proceeding to the next step. This step-by-step approach has been shown to reduce students’ cognitive load, particularly for those who previously struggled to determine an initial course of action when confronted with unfamiliar problem structures. Furthermore, the contextualisation of problems using culturally familiar objects—such as calculating the surface area of a ketupat or the volume of a pengkang-shaped container—has been shown to enhance students’ mathematical thinking and engagement with abstract concepts (Fouze & Amit, 2018), while the use of culturally contextualised problems has been demonstrated to strengthen students’ problem-solving abilities (Alghiffari et al., 2024). The convergence of structured scaffolding, cultural contextualisation, and interactive feedback thus collectively accounts for the substantial gains observed between the pretest and posttest.

Overall, the improvement in students’ problem-solving skills was due not only to the interactive, content-valid design of the media but also to the strength of the ethnomathematical approach, which connects formal mathematical knowledge with students’ social and cultural realities. The integration of technological and cultural aspects created a meaningful, context-rich learning experience that fostered students’ higher-order thinking skills. Previous studies have demonstrated that integrating technology with cultural contexts or local wisdom significantly enhances meaningful, contextually relevant learning experiences, encouraging the development of higher-order thinking skills ((Hikmawati et al., 2024); (Kwangmuang et al., 2021)). This media provided students with opportunities to realise that mathematics is not merely a collection of abstract formulas but an integral part of their daily lives, reflected in the culture, objects, and traditions they encounter.

The findings from this study on integrating ethnomathematics into Android-based learning media to improve students’ problem-solving skills are highly relevant to teaching practice and educational policy. The core relevance lies in demonstrating an effective, engaging, and culturally responsive model for mathematics education that leverages modern technology. For teachers, the study provides a practical, validated pedagogical model for contextualising learning. It offers teachers a framework for making abstract mathematical concepts, particularly in areas like geometry, concrete and meaningful by linking them to students’ local culture and daily experiences (ethnomathematics), which is shown to increase student motivation and understanding. For educational policymakers and curriculum developers, the findings offer empirical evidence to support shifts toward more culturally inclusive and technologically advanced curricula. The study provides a strong rationale for the inclusion of local cultural contexts (ethnomathematics) in learning materials (formal mathematics curriculum), moving beyond a purely Eurocentric approach. Additionally, it supports policies that advocate for the development and widespread adoption of educational technology, specifically mobile-based media, to ensure learning resources are modern, interactive, and aligned with the demands of the digital age.

This study involved only 10 participants because it was a small-scale pilot trial. The very small sample size means the findings cannot yet be generalised broadly. Although the results indicate improvements in problem-solving skills and positive responses toward the media, further research with a larger, more diverse group of participants is needed to comprehensively evaluate the media's effectiveness. In addition, the feedback provided by users during this pilot phase—such as the need for more diverse cultural content and adjustments to the allotted time for using the media—serves as an important foundation for future development before the media is widely implemented in broader learning contexts.

Based on the results and limitations of this study, it is recommended that future research be conducted on a larger scale to examine the media’s effectiveness across different schools and cultural contexts. Subsequent studies may employ experimental designs with control groups to compare the effects of ethnomathematics-based media with those of conventional learning media. Additionally, longitudinal studies could be conducted to assess the sustainability of students’ problem-solving improvement over extended use of the media. Future developments could also enrich the content with other cultural objects beyond ketupat and pengkang, thereby expanding ethnomathematical representation and enhancing the media’s cultural relevance across different regions.

This study successfully developed an interactive Android-based learning media integrated with ethnomathematics for teaching prisms and pyramids. The validation results indicated that the media is highly feasible in terms of content, presentation, and cultural relevance. The practicality test showed positive responses from teachers and students, suggesting that the media is easy to operate, engaging, and supportive of learning activities. Furthermore, the media’s effectiveness was demonstrated by its ability to foster students’ mathematical problem-solving skills, as reflected in a very large effect size. Theoretically, this study contributes to the development of technology-based and culturally integrated learning media. The integration of ethnomathematics shows that cultural contexts can help students connect abstract geometric concepts with real-life experiences, thereby deepening conceptual meaning and increasing engagement in learning. While promising, these findings are preliminary and confined to a specific cultural and institutional context, warranting further investigation before broader claims can be made.

These findings carry practical implications for multiple stakeholders. Teachers may adopt the developed media as a contextual and visually interactive resource for geometry instruction. Schools may draw on these results to support digital learning innovations that incorporate local cultural contexts. At the same time, policymakers may use the evidence to advocate for culturally inclusive, technology-enhanced mathematics curricula.

This study has several limitations that directly inform future research directions. The small sample size (n = 10) limits the generalizability of the findings, and the limited instructional time prevents a full exploration of the media’s features. Furthermore, the cultural content focused solely on Pontianak’s traditional foods, and no longitudinal assessment of concept retention or sustained problem-solving development was conducted. Future research should therefore employ larger, more diverse samples, extend the implementation period, broaden the cultural repertoire beyond local culinary artefacts, and adopt experimental designs with control groups to establish more robust causal evidence. Longitudinal studies are also encouraged to evaluate the sustained impact of the media on students' mathematical problem-solving competencies over time.

The authors would like to thank Universitas PGRI Pontianak for its support of this research and State Junior High School 2 Pontianak, West Kalimantan, for granting permission to use its site for the research.