The teaching of mathematics in Indonesian primary schools remains predominantly rooted in abstract and formal paradigms, often failing to consider students’ cultural backgrounds and lived experiences ((Sembiring et al., 2008);(Revina & Leung, 2021)). This disconnect poses a significant challenge, particularly for students from culturally rich communities whose heritage and everyday practices are not systematically integrated into the learning process. Kumar (Kumar et al., 2018) argue that the mismatch between instructional approaches and students’ cultural experiences can undermine learning motivation and cognitive engagement.

Within the primary mathematics curriculum, the topics of Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) and Least Common Multiple (LCM) are consistently identified as among the most challenging for students to grasp—especially in applying these abstract concepts to real-life problem-solving contexts (Li & Tsai, 2022). Moreover, recent studies highlight that mathematics instruction in Indonesia often lacks contextual grounding and cultural relevance, further contributing to students' cognitive disengagement and emotional disconnection from mathematical content (Rosa & Orey, 2024). This situation is exacerbated by the continued reliance on outdated instructional models, which, according to Azmidar (Azmidar et al., 2017), leads to monotonous classroom experiences with minimal relevance to students' daily lives.

The implications of these pedagogical shortcomings are evident in national and international assessments. Research by Ni (Ni et al., 2018) underscores that poor cognitive and affective engagement in mathematics during primary school correlates with low performance at the secondary and tertiary levels. Consistently, Indonesian students’ performance in international assessments such as PISA and TIMSS remains below the OECD average, reflecting systemic challenges in mathematics education ((O.E.C.D., 2019); (Wijaya et al., 2024)). These findings call for a transformative shift in the mathematics teaching paradigm—one that aligns more closely with students' cultural realities and enhances both conceptual understanding and affective development.

In response to these challenges, ethnomathematics has emerged as a promising approach to bridge the gap between formal mathematics instruction and students’ cultural contexts. Ethnomathematics is defined as the study of mathematical ideas and practices as embedded in the cultural and historical experiences of diverse communities ((D’Ambrosio, 2016); (Rosa & Orey, 2011); (Pujiastuti et al., 2025)). This approach advocates for the integration of cultural artifacts, symbols, and practices into mathematics instruction, thereby making learning more meaningful and contextually relevant ((Prahmana & D’Ambrosio, 2020)(Prahmana et al., 2023); (Gustina et al., 2025)).

Empirical studies have demonstrated that embedding local culture into mathematics education improves students’ conceptual comprehension, emotional engagement, and overall learning outcomes ((Larasati et al., 2025);(Yanti, 2025); (Prahmana et al., 2025)). For instance, Abasi and Ekwueme (Abasi & Ekwueme, 2025) reported that students exposed to culturally contextualized mathematics instruction showed higher achievement in understanding mathematical concepts. Similarly, the use of traditional games, dance, and architecture as instructional contexts has been shown to enhance students’ cognitive and affective domains ((Hartati & Panggabean, 2023); (Radiusman et al., 2021); (Fauzi et al., 2022)).

A recent study by Prahmana (Prahmana et al., 2025) further illustrated how embedding cultural values from the Ramayana epic within mathematics lessons not only strengthened students’ emotional connection to the subject but also fostered the internalization of moral values. However, much of the current literature in ethnomathematics education tends to concentrate on geometric patterns and symmetry found in batik designs, traditional dances, or architectural structures ((Prahmana & D’Ambrosio, 2020); (Radiusman et al., 2021); (Fauzi et al., 2022)). Limited research has explored the pedagogical potential of traditional games—despite their mathematical richness and relevance for primary students.

This study aims to address that gap by investigating the educational potential of bola bekel, a traditional Indonesian children's game widely played in Java and Bali, as a contextual vehicle for teaching the mathematical concepts of GCD and LCM in primary schools. Traditional games such as bola bekel represent valuable cultural artifacts that not only promote physical dexterity but also embody mathematical structures such as repetition, sequence, pattern recognition, and numerical relationships (Zuhri et al., 2023). The rules and variations of bola bekel—such as the number of balls and the sequence of movements—can be modeled mathematically and used to construct problem-solving tasks related to LCM and GCD, thereby offering a culturally grounded and pedagogically sound learning experience.

Furthermore, the integration of traditional games into mathematics instruction serves dual functions: enhancing pedagogical effectiveness and contributing to cultural preservation amid the pressures of modernization. Shih (Shih, 2022) emphasized that culturally responsive education strengthens student identity and character formation by embedding social and historical values into the curriculum.

To address the identified gap, this study aims to explore and analyze the pedagogical potential of the traditional Indonesian game bola bekel as a culturally relevant context for teaching the mathematical concepts of LCM and GCD at the elementary school level. Anchored in the principles of ethnomathematics, this research examines how cultural artifacts—particularly traditional games—can function as meaningful contexts that enhance students’ conceptual understanding and engagement in mathematics learning. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate: (1) how the traditional game bola bekel can be pedagogically reconstructed to represent the mathematical concepts of LCM and GCD; (2) how the integration of bola bekel into mathematics instruction affects students’ cognitive and affective engagement with the subject; and (3) what cultural and historical values inherent in the game contribute to character education within the elementary mathematics curriculum. Through these research inquiries, the study aspires to develop a culturally responsive instructional model that meaningfully connects mathematical content with students’ sociocultural experiences, thereby contributing to the advancement of contextual and inclusive mathematics education in Indonesia.

This study adopts an ethnographic approach within the framework of ethnomathematics to investigate the cultural practices associated with the traditional Indonesian game bola bekel and to examine its pedagogical potential in representing mathematical concepts, specifically LCM and GCD, in the context of elementary mathematics education. Ethnography is considered appropriate for this research design due to its strength in capturing cultural meanings from the perspective of cultural practitioners by immersing in everyday practices that reflect social, historical, and philosophical values (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019). In this context, ethnography is employed not only as a data collection method but also as an interpretative framework to trace the connections between the structure of traditional games and the mathematical concepts that can be pedagogically reconstructed.

The ethnographic design follows Spradley’s (Spradley, 2016) model, which consists of five systematic phases: (1) identification and selection of informants, (2) conducting ethnographic interviews, (3) detailed field documentation, (4) domain and thematic analysis, and (5) formulation of cultural interpretations. The central focus of the study is to analyze bola bekel as a cultural artifact that embodies pedagogical potential in the teaching and learning of mathematics from an ethnomathematical perspective. The study was conducted in two primary research sites: the Museum of Education and Traditional Toys (Museum Pendidikan dan Mainan Kolong Tangga) in Yogyakarta, and the Indonesian Traditional Children’s Games Preservation Community (Play Plus Indonesia), both of which are dedicated to the conservation and promotion of traditional games as part of Indonesia’s cultural heritage.

The research participants are divided into two main groups. The first group consists of key informants—museum curators and community organizers—who were purposively selected based on their expertise and experience in the fields of cultural heritage and traditional games, particularly in relation to educational practices. The second group includes elementary school students from grades three to five who actively engage in playing bola bekel within their social environments. Their participation aimed to facilitate the observation of authentic gameplay practices and the identification of emerging mathematical patterns inherent in the game’s structure and sequences.

Data were collected through three primary methods: semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document analysis (Bernard, 2018). Semi-structured interviews were selected for their flexibility in eliciting in-depth responses while allowing the interviewer to adapt questions based on participants' narratives. The interview protocol was guided by ethnomathematical indicators and cultural values embedded in traditional games. Participant observations were conducted to examine students' interactions during gameplay, focusing on the emergence of mathematical phenomena and cultural expressions in natural settings. All activities were systematically documented through photographs, audio recordings, video footage, and field notes.

In addition, a literature review was undertaken to analyze relevant scholarly articles, books, and supporting documents that provide theoretical and philosophical insights into the traditional game and its mathematical representations. This secondary data served to reinforce and contextualize the field findings. To ensure data credibility and validity, triangulation was applied by comparing data across different sources (interviews, observations, and literature) and through methodological triangulation. Validation of interpretations was further enhanced by involving key

analysis employed Spradley’s (Spradley, 2016) domain and thematic analysis techniques, involving the identification of cultural meaning units, construction of domains, and the mapping of empirical findings to the mathematical representations of LCM and GCD embedded within the gameplay structure of bola bekel. This analysis also considered the philosophical meanings embedded in the game that contribute to the cultivation of student character within a culturally embedded educational framework.

Ultimately, this methodological approach is intended to contribute to the development of a culturally responsive and contextually meaningful instructional model for teaching mathematics, rooted in local cultural traditions. Moreover, the study’s findings are expected to support the preservation of Indonesia’s traditional games by integrating them meaningfully into elementary mathematics curricula.

The findings of this study reveal that the traditional game of bekel ball is not merely a form of cultural heritage but also contains mathematical structures that can be utilized for teaching the concepts of LCM and GCD in elementary schools. The analysis indicates that the game possesses both educational and philosophical values that enrich the learning context of mathematics. This section presents the findings beginning from the historical and cultural significance of bekel ball, followed by the analysis of its mathematical elements and pedagogical implications.

The findings of this study highlight the pedagogical potential of traditional games—specifically the bekel game—not merely as recreational tools but as culturally grounded learning media that support the development of mathematical understanding. Far from being limited to motor or social skill development, the bekel game demonstrates an underlying mathematical structure that can be leveraged to contextualize fundamental concepts such as factors, multiples, LCM, and GCD.

This research aligns with the ethnomathematical framework proposed by Rosa and Orey (Rosa & Orey, 2024), who argue that mathematics is not a culturally neutral or isolated discipline but rather one that emerges from real-world practices shaped by cultural contexts. Within this perspective, mathematical concepts should be explored not only through abstract formalism but also through meaningful connections with students' cultural backgrounds. The bekel game, as a form of cultural artifact, thus becomes a valuable didactical tool that fosters the integration of students’ lived experiences with formal mathematical reasoning.

Through engaging in the bekel game, students naturally encounter mathematical situations that require them to recognize numerical patterns, categorize quantities, and analyze divisibility. For instance, the ability to group or divide bekel seeds without remainder provides a tangible and enjoyable means for students to develop a conceptual understanding of factors. Similarly, temporal coordination in multi-group gameplay (e.g., players taking turns every few seconds) presents opportunities for introducing LCM and GCD in a contextually relevant and cognitively accessible manner.

These findings are supported by Andersson (Andersson et al., 2015), who found that mathematics instruction that incorporates students' cultural contexts enhances both cognitive engagement and conceptual understanding. The use of culturally responsive pedagogy, especially when embedded in traditional games, not only sustains student interest but also reinforces the relevance of mathematics in their everyday lives (Risdiyanti et al., 2019). Such integration can help to bridge the disconnect that students often experience between abstract mathematical instruction and their informal knowledge systems (Prahmana et al., 2025). Moreover, the pedagogical significance of the bekel game extends beyond cognitive outcomes to include character education. Participation in the game requires self-discipline, precision, perseverance, and fairness—values that align with the broader goals of 21st-century education. The structured nature of the game, combined with its competitive and collaborative elements, provides a fertile ground for cultivating both academic and socio-emotional competencies.

This study also supports the "funds of knowledge" concept introduced by Moll (Moll et al., 2006), which emphasizes the importance of recognizing and utilizing the cultural resources that students bring to the classroom. In this case, familiarity with the rules, structure, and rhythm of the bekel game becomes a form of culturally embedded knowledge that can be mobilized to facilitate the transition from informal to formal mathematical concepts. Teachers act as mediators who connect students’ experiential knowledge with curriculum-based abstractions (Cheung et al., 2022).

The effective use of traditional games such as bekel also highlights the importance of culturally sustaining pedagogy in mathematics education. By embedding local cultural practices into classroom instruction, educators not only validate students’ cultural identities but also diversify pedagogical strategies to accommodate varied learning styles (Markey et al., 2021). This is particularly relevant in multilingual and multicultural societies where mainstream curricula often fail to reflect students' sociocultural realities (Veliz & Chen, 2024).

Furthermore, integrating the bekel game into mathematics instruction supports constructivist approaches to learning, whereby students actively construct meaning from hands-on activities and real-life scenarios. Instead of passively receiving knowledge, students engage in exploratory learning experiences that enhance their problem-solving skills and promote a deeper understanding of number theory through pattern recognition and logical reasoning. The adaptability of this approach also makes it relevant beyond the Indonesian context. Many countries possess rich traditions of local games that remain untapped as educational resources (Qirom & Juandi, 2023). By adopting a culturally grounded framework such as ethnomathematics, educators worldwide can uncover and integrate indigenous knowledge systems into formal learning environments, thereby enriching mathematics education through locally meaningful practices (Zuhri et al., 2023).

Finally, the present study underscores the value of utilizing traditional cultural games as pedagogical tools to promote mathematical understanding. It also contributes significantly to the growing body of literature in culturally responsive mathematics education by empirically demonstrating how traditional games, such as bekel, can serve as meaningful pedagogical tools that bridge informal cultural practices and formal mathematical concepts. The study not only validates the ethnomathematical framework as an effective approach to contextualize mathematical learning but also opens new avenues for researchers to explore indigenous and localized knowledge systems as rich sources of mathematical thinking.

This study has demonstrated that the traditional game of bola bekel can be effectively utilized as a culturally embedded instructional medium for teaching foundational mathematical concepts, including factors, multiples, LCM, and GCD. By employing an ethnographic approach grounded in ethnomathematics, this research provides empirical evidence that the integration of cultural practices into mathematics education not only enhances conceptual understanding but also enriches students’ learning experiences by connecting abstract content with familiar, real-world contexts. The incorporation of bola bekel into classroom activities promotes contextualized learning, supports students’ identity formation, and cultivates core values such as perseverance, fairness, and critical thinking—aligning well with the broader objectives of character education in the 21st century.

Despite its contributions, this study is not without limitations. The scope of the research was confined to a specific cultural context and a limited number of mathematical topics, potentially restricting the generalizability of its findings. Moreover, the implementation was primarily observational, lacking longitudinal data to assess long-term impacts on mathematical achievement. Therefore, for future mathematics education researchers, this work provides a methodological and theoretical foundation for designing instructional interventions that leverage students’ cultural backgrounds to improve engagement, conceptual understanding, and academic equity. Furthermore, the integration of cultural artifacts like traditional games offers a replicable model for curriculum innovation in multicultural and multilingual contexts, emphasizing the importance of inclusive pedagogy. This study also invites further interdisciplinary research collaborations among educators, anthropologists, and curriculum designers to document, analyze, and integrate diverse cultural practices into mathematics education. By situating mathematical learning within students' sociocultural realities, future research can continue to challenge dominant paradigms of mathematics instruction and contribute to the development of more equitable and culturally sustaining education systems globally.

The author extends sincere gratitude to the administrators and curators of the Museum Pendidikan dan Mainan Kolong Tangga as well as the Play Plus Indonesia Community—a dedicated organization for the preservation of traditional children's games in Indonesia. Their invaluable contributions as cultural practitioners have significantly enriched the ethnographic and cultural insights underpinning this research. The author is also profoundly grateful to Universitas Ahmad Dahlan (Indonesia) and Metropolitan Tirana University (Albania) for its institutional international collaboration support, particularly in facilitating the research process and academic publication endeavors. The universities commitment to advancing scholarly exchange and interdisciplinary inquiry has played a pivotal role in enabling the exploration of ethnomathematics within culturally grounded educational contexts.