Mathematics is frequently perceived by students as an abstract and disconnected discipline, often divorced from everyday experience ((Awoniyi et al., 2025); (Grootenboer et al., 2023)). In contrast, educational theorists assert that mathematics is a product of human activity, inherently embedded in daily life and shaped by cultural and social contexts (Prahmana, 2022). From this perspective, mathematics extends beyond symbolic representations and theoretical constructs; it functions as a practical tool for interpreting real-world phenomena and solving contextual problems (Babu et al., 2023). However, when mathematics is taught in a decontextualized manner, students often struggle to grasp its concepts and fail to see its relevance to their lived experiences (Risdiyanti & Prahmana, 2021). To address this disconnect, it is essential to design instructional strategies that bridge abstract mathematical content with culturally meaningful contexts, thereby promoting deeper understanding and the application of mathematical reasoning in real-life situations.

Ethnomathematics, as introduced by (D’Ambrosio, 2016), provides a theoretical and pedagogical framework for contextualizing mathematics within cultural practices. It emphasizes that mathematical knowledge is not culturally neutral but rather emerges from diverse ways of knowing, which are embedded in traditional practices, artifacts, and symbols ((Orey & Rosa, 2021); (Sudirman et al., 2024)). As an instructional approach, ethnomathematics seeks to illuminate how mathematical ideas manifest in local contexts, thereby fostering students’ conceptual understanding and cultural appreciation (Prahmana, 2022). For example, traditional Indonesian practices such as batik making provide rich opportunities for exploring mathematical concepts, including symmetry, patterns, geometry, and sequences.

Indonesia’s cultural diversity offers a fertile ground for ethnomathematical inquiry. As a multicultural and archipelagic nation, Indonesia is home to a vast array of traditional art forms, among which Batik Lampung stands out for its symbolic depth and aesthetic intricacy. This regional batik tradition reflects not only cultural identity but also a variety of mathematical structures embedded within its motifs (Prahmana & D’Ambrosio, 2020). These include concepts such as numerical patterns, geometric transformations, reflectional symmetry, and repetition. The mathematical significance of Batik Lampung positions it as a potential pedagogical tool for constructing culturally grounded mathematics instruction. By leveraging students' socio-cultural backgrounds, educators can enhance mathematical engagement and promote both cognitive and cultural development (Sharma & Orey, 2017).

Previous research has made notable contributions to the ethnomathematical exploration of Lampung culture, including investigations of mathematical elements embedded in Tapis cloth and traditional houses (Loviana et al., 2020), traditional games (Merliza et al., 2022), and traditional cakes (Merliza et al., 2022). In the realm of batik, ethnomathematical inquiries have been conducted by (Noerhasmalina & Khasanah, 2023), (Prahmana & D’Ambrosio, 2020), and (Sutrisno & Saija, 2021), primarily emphasizing geometric shapes and symmetrical patterns. While these studies have deepened the understanding of spatial and visual elements in Batik designs, there remains a notable paucity of research addressing numerical patterns—particularly within the context of Batik Lampung. This represents a critical gap in the literature, as number patterns constitute a fundamental concept in mathematics education and may offer rich insights into the cultural logic embedded in Batik motifs.

To address this underexplored area, the present study aims to investigate the number patterns present in Batik Lampung motifs and examine their philosophical meanings within the Lampung community. Additionally, the study seeks to explore the pedagogical potential of these patterns for integration into mathematics instruction, thereby linking cultural heritage with mathematical learning. Consequently, this research is focused on identifying and describing number patterns in Batik Lampung motifs and analyzing their associated philosophical significance. The findings are expected to contribute to the theoretical discourse on ethnomathematics by expanding its scope beyond geometry into numerical concepts, while also providing practical implications for culturally responsive mathematics education. Therefore, this study is guided by the research question: How are number patterns represented in Batik Lampung motifs, what are their underlying philosophical meanings, and how can they be utilized as instructional resources in mathematics education?

This study employed an ethnographic research methodology to examine the cultural practices of the Lampung community, with particular emphasis on the motifs found in Batik Lampung. Situated within the framework of ethnomathematics, the research sought to identify underlying mathematical principles—specifically number patterns—while also exploring the philosophical meanings embedded within these traditional designs. Data were collected through a combination of literature review and semi-structured interviews with purposively selected participants who possess in-depth expertise in Lampung cultural heritage.

The selected informants included Mr. Humaidi, a cultural practitioner and retired civil servant formerly affiliated with the Lampung Cultural Center (Taman Budaya Lampung), and Mrs. Zatunutqen, a traditional elder (Tetua Adat) holding the honorary title of tapis, residing in Tanggamus Regency, Lampung Province. Mr. Humaidi, a native of Pesawaran Regency, Lampung Province, was raised in a family committed to the preservation of Lampung cultural traditions. Throughout his tenure at the Provincial Cultural Center, he actively contributed to various initiatives aimed at sustaining and promoting local cultural expressions. Meanwhile, Mrs. Zatunutqen, as a respected figure in the community, has played an essential role in transmitting cultural knowledge and philosophical values to younger generations.

Prior to the interviews, informed consent was obtained from both participants, allowing for the disclosure of their identities and the publication of research findings. To ensure the credibility and validity of the data, triangulation was employed by cross-referencing interview results with findings from relevant literature sources.

The primary method of data collection in this study was semi-structured interviews. Unlike fully structured interviews, semi-structured interviews provide enhanced flexibility and adaptability, enabling researchers to adjust the flow of conversation based on contextual developments and to pursue probing questions when necessary. Although the interviews were guided by a predetermined set of questions, this approach allowed for a more interactive and nuanced exchange of information. The interviews were conducted with two key informants—Mr. Humaidi and Mrs. Zatunutqen—both of whom were selected for their recognized authority and deep knowledge of the cultural and mathematical dimensions of Batik Lampung motifs. The interview questions focused on the historical background, the specific motifs, and the embedded philosophical meanings associated with Batik Lampung.

In addition to the interviews, an extensive literature review on Batik Lampung was conducted to enrich and validate the findings obtained from fieldwork. The data collection process was systematically documented through multiple forms of evidence, including photographs, audio recordings of the interviews, and comprehensive notes derived from the literature review. To ensure the credibility and accuracy of the research findings, triangulation techniques were employed by cross-referencing data from interviews with relevant scholarly literature, with particular emphasis on the identification of mathematical concepts—specifically number patterns—and the cultural and philosophical values embedded in Batik Lampung motifs. Furthermore, researcher triangulation was conducted to enhance the validity of the identification of number pattern concepts within the motifs. The final stage of the study involved the analysis and interpretation of the data to generate coherent and contextually grounded insights, focusing on the convergence of findings across multiple data sources and their broader cultural and mathematical significance. The ethnographic procedures followed in this research were adapted from (Spradley, 2016) and are presented in Table 1.

The findings of this study identified six distinct Lampung batik motifs that embody mathematical elements and cultural values, making them valuable and meaningful contexts for teaching number patterns. Each motif contains specific mathematical characteristics that can be effectively integrated into mathematics instruction. A detailed explanation of each motif, along with its mathematical and cultural significance, will be presented in the findings section of this article.

The Lampung Batik Motifs

In addition to Tapis, which is widely recognized as the traditional woven fabric of the Lampung people, another distinctive textile from the region is Batik Lampung. Although both textiles originate from the same cultural context, they differ in terms of production techniques and visual characteristics. Tapis motifs are created using hand-embroidered gold thread, whereas Batik Lampung employs the batik technique using hot wax, known as malam, to form intricate patterns. Beyond its ceremonial function, Batik Lampung is also adapted for everyday clothing, depending on the garment's design and purpose (Humaidi, 2021).

The historical emergence of Batik Lampung is closely linked to the settlement of Javanese communities in the Lampung region (Zatunutqen, 2022). (Budianto, 2020) explains that the official migration of Javanese people to Lampung began in 1905 as part of a colonial resettlement program.

Over time, the Javanese settlers integrated local cultural elements into their practices, leading to the development of Batik Lampung, characterized by motifs that reflect the region’s unique cultural identity.

The motifs of Batik Lampung are primarily inspired by traditional ornaments, regional flora and fauna, and iconic cultural accessories associated with the Lampung region. Among the most prominent motifs are Siger (a traditional crown symbolizing Lampung nobility), Kapal (ship), Gajah (elephant), Kembang Kopi (coffee flower), Kacapiring (gardenia), and Pucuk Rebung (bamboo shoot).

The specific motifs analyzed in this study include Siger Batik, Kapal Batik, Pucuk Rebung Batik, Gajah Batik, Sembagi Kacapiring Batik, and Sembagi Kembang Kopi Batik. Furthermore, Figure 1 illustrates the diversity of Batik Lampung motifs, reflecting the region's rich cultural and symbolic heritage. Finally, this study focuses on exploring number pattern concepts embedded within these motifs, with the aim of identifying mathematical structures that can serve as meaningful and culturally relevant contexts for mathematics instruction.

Ethnomathematics emphasizes the integration of mathematical concepts with the cultural practices of specific communities, aiming to bridge formal mathematics education with students’ lived experiences. This approach situates mathematics as a culturally embedded discipline rather than a purely abstract and universal body of knowledge. Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of ethnomathematics in fostering students' mathematical reasoning and engagement ((Maidiyah et al., 2023); (Novitasari et al., 2024)). By connecting mathematical instruction with culturally familiar contexts, learners are better equipped to internalize abstract concepts, thereby enriching their conceptual understanding and critical thinking skills.

The use of cultural artifacts, such as batik—an Indonesian traditional textile art—offers a pedagogically rich medium for contextualizing mathematical instruction. As highlighted by prior research ((Ishartono & Ningtyas, 2021); (Prahmana & D’Ambrosio, 2020); (Rizqoh et al., 2024)), batik patterns reflect various mathematical ideas, including symmetry, transformations, and arithmetic sequences. When incorporated into classroom activities, such artifacts not only facilitate more meaningful and realistic learning experiences but also promote cultural awareness and identity among students (Sugiarto et al., 2025). The aesthetic and repetitive characteristics of batik designs naturally align with mathematical patterns, making them an effective entry point for engaging learners in mathematical discourse.

One mathematical structure frequently observed in batik is the arithmetic sequence, which appears as regular, linear progressions in the visual repetition of motifs. For instance, artisans often employ simple arithmetic rules to generate symmetrical patterns that evolve in a systematic manner. These numerical patterns signify more than mathematical properties; they embody philosophical meanings within traditional culture. Previous studies have identified arithmetic sequences in various batik motifs, including Kawung from Yogyakarta (Safitri et al., 2022), Adipuro ((Astuti et al., 2019)), and Truntum ((Nurcahyo et al., 2024)). The use of constant numerical intervals symbolizes concepts such as loyalty, continuity, and unity—values that underscore the community's commitment to cultural preservation across generations.

Beyond their mathematical representation, the numerical elements in batik possess deep symbolic and cosmological interpretations (Putri et al., 2024). For example, patterns involving odd and even numbers are often employed to convey balance, harmony, and complementarity—principles that resonate with traditional worldviews regarding the natural order. These embedded numerical arrangements reflect how local communities perceive and maintain equilibrium within nature and social life. Understanding the underlying philosophy of these numerical patterns enables students to appreciate the cultural significance of batik beyond its visual appeal (Wesnina et al., 2025). It also fosters an integrative learning experience that combines mathematical literacy with cultural sensitivity and philosophical reflection.

The findings of this study indicate that the arithmetic patterns embedded in Batik Lampung possess substantial pedagogical potential and can serve as effective instructional resources in mathematics education. Integrating Batik Lampung as a contextual medium offers opportunities to make mathematics learning more engaging, meaningful, and culturally relevant, particularly in regions where this cultural heritage is prevalent. The ethnomathematical analysis of number patterns within Batik Lampung motifs can be utilized as a foundation for designing instructional materials aligned with realistic and context-based learning approaches (Sari et al., 2023). However, the present study is limited to the identification and analysis of numerical patterns within the motifs and does not extend to the implementation phase. Therefore, future research should focus on the practical application of batik-based instructional models in classroom settings to evaluate their impact on students’ conceptual understanding and motivation. Further investigations may also explore interdisciplinary linkages that connect mathematics with local culture, art, and history, thereby advancing culturally responsive pedagogies and enriching the broader educational landscape.

This study has successfully uncovered and analyzed a range of mathematical patterns inherent in the traditional motifs of Batik Lampung. The identified patterns include odd and even arithmetic sequences, special arithmetic progressions present in the Siger motif, square and rectangular number configurations in the Sembagi “Kacapiring” motif, and constant numerical sequences in the Kapal motif. Each of these patterns reflects not only mathematical structures but also embodies philosophical meanings grounded in the local cultural context, such as continuity, cosmological balance, sustainable growth, and harmony. These findings demonstrate the potential of Batik Lampung as a culturally rich and mathematically meaningful context for introducing abstract mathematical concepts through culturally relevant instruction.

Despite offering a comprehensive descriptive mapping of number patterns and their cultural significance, the scope of this research remains limited to qualitative analysis and motif exploration. The study did not include empirical testing or quantitative validation of the instructional effectiveness of these ethnomathematical elements in real classroom settings. As such, while the results provide a strong theoretical foundation for culturally contextualized mathematics education, they do not yet establish the efficacy of Batik Lampung-based learning materials in enhancing students’ mathematical understanding, reasoning, or motivation.

To advance the field, future research should focus on the development and experimental implementation of instructional models that integrate Batik Lampung into mathematics teaching. This includes designing lesson plans, teaching aids, and learning activities rooted in ethnomathematical principles, followed by quantitative evaluations through classroom trials. Such studies could examine the impact of culturally contextualized learning on students’ cognitive and affective outcomes, as well as its role in preserving and promoting local cultural heritage within formal education. Expanding this research into interdisciplinary domains may also yield valuable insights into how mathematics education can serve as a bridge between cultural identity and academic learning.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the invaluable contributions of Mr. Humaidi, a distinguished cultural practitioner and former official at the Taman Budaya Lampung, whose expertise greatly enriched the cultural understanding underlying this study. Appreciation is also extended to Mrs. Zatunutqen, a respected traditional elder of the Lampung community, for her insightful perspectives on local philosophy and symbolism embedded in Batik Lampung motifs. Furthermore, the authors further extend sincere thanks to Universitas Ahmad Dahlan (Indonesia) and Universidad de Zaragoza (Spain) for their unwavering institutional support, particularly in facilitating ongoing international research collaborations and academic publication efforts. Their commitment to advancing scholarly exchange has played a pivotal role in enabling the interdisciplinary exploration of ethnomathematics within culturally grounded contexts.