Recent scholarly efforts have increasingly focused on integrating technology into waqf management. For instance, studies like (Awalluddin et al., 2024) and (Abdulquadri & Quadri, 2025) explored blockchain and digital platforms for zakat and waqf. However, their scope was limited to specific technologies or regional implementations. Similarly, research by (Hasbulah et al., 2024) emphasized blockchain's role in enhancing cash waqf transparency but lacked a comparative analysis of other technologies like AI or digital platforms. Meanwhile, (Napitupulu et al., 2023) examined fintech's intersection with waqf, identifying gaps in empirical validation of its socio-economic impact.

Other works, such as(Kosmon et al., 2023), highlighted blockchain's potential in Middle Eastern and Asian waqf systems but did not address regulatory challenges in developing nations like Indonesia. Studies like (Ramdani et al., 2022) and (Fachrurrazy et al., 2022) focused on strategic management and digital crowdfunding but overlooked systemic barriers such as infrastructural limitations and stakeholder resistance. Additionally, systematic reviews by (Ascarya et al., 2022) mapped traditional waqf models but lacked emphasis on modern technological integration.

The synthesis of previous research on the implementation of technology in waqf management reveals that while a growing body of literature examines various digital innovations, such as blockchain, artificial intelligence, and digital platforms, these studies often remain fragmented and limited in scope. Much of the existing research focuses on the opportunities and challenges of adopting specific technologies or presents case studies centred on particular countries, most notably Malaysia, Singapore, and several Gulf states. Furthermore, systematic reviews that have been conducted typically emphasize either the technical aspects of a single technology or the managerial challenges in waqf administration, without offering a comprehensive thematic mapping of the broader landscape. As a result, there is a lack of integrative studies that systematically classify and compare the diverse range of technologies being implemented in waqf management, especially in the context of Indonesia, which possesses unique socio-economic and regulatory characteristics.

This study addresses these gaps by providing a holistic and systematic literature review that not only explores the implementation of advanced technologies in waqf management but also maps out the main themes and research clusters emerging from a wide array of sources, including Scopus, Google Scholar, OpenAlex, and Crossref, over the period 2020–2025. The novelty of this research lies in its comprehensive bibliographic analysis, which synthesizes findings across multiple technologies and contextual settings, and its focus on the Indonesian context, which has been underrepresented in prior studies. By offering a detailed thematic classification and highlighting best practices, challenges, and opportunities, this study contributes new insights for policymakers, practitioners, and academics. It lays the groundwork for future empirical research on the measurable impact of technology adoption in waqf management.

The fundamental premise of Social Exchange Theory is that individuals behave rationally. Social exchange theory is the theoretical framework underpinning the study of charitable activities (Blau, 2017). In contrast to the pure economic theory, this framework evinces greater flexibility because of its capacity to apply universally and transcend economic markets. This quality renders it a suitable model for analyzing donor or giver behavior. Social exchange theory addresses reward-driven efforts related to social interaction, human values, spiritual principles, personal empowerment, and emotional fulfilment (Blau, 2017).

In the context of waqf givers, the benefits derived from waqf assets include a perpetual exchange of rewards, the repercussions of which extend to numerous individuals throughout generations (Sakina et al., 2023). Consequently, beneficiaries of these assets benefit from their development and utilization (Sakina et al., 2023). This congruence renders social exchange theory highly pertinent to waqf praxis. The practice of waqf relies on the cooperation and participation of the waqif (waqf giver), nadzir (waqf manager), and mauquf alaih (waqf recipient), and each party benefits from both economic and social benefits.

The term 'waqf' is generally understood to mean retention. At the same time, in Islamic law, it is defined as 'the retention or retirement of an asset and the distribution of its benefits. In essence, waqf signifies the right to hold the item in question, not to sell, distribute, store, or give it away, so that it can be helpful in the way of Allah. (Ramdani et al., 2022) defined waqf as a pool of consumable resources developed into productive assets to increase economic capital accumulation and improve future services and income. Another study explains that waqf is an asset retained by its original owner and benefits people who cannot afford it (Sudirman & Ramadhita, 2020). The asset must remain original and not be developed by the owner. Meanwhile, the opinions of four eminent Islamic scholars, namely al-Hanafi, al-Maliki, al-Shafi'i, and Hanbali, diverge in their definitions of waqf. However, a consensus among these scholars exists that the property should be maintained in its original state and that profits should be allocated to those in need (Sudirman & Ramadhita, 2020).

Using waqf for economic activities has effectively improved societal welfare ((Alam et al., 2018); (Asra & Savitri, 2023); (Qurrata et al., 2021)). Several countries, including Kuwait, Bangladesh, Singapore, Turkey, Malaysia, and Egypt, have successfully developed waqf assets. For instance, in Bangladesh, the development of cash waqf has played a pivotal role in providing financing capital for small and medium enterprises, microfinance, consumptive financing (e.g., murabaha, salam, istishna, ijarah), and other financing, thereby contributing to poverty reduction and income inequality (Haneef et al., 2015). Similarly, Singapore has allocated approximately 140 million Singapore dollars to construct 23 large mosques, 20 units of Kassim waqf houses, commercial buildings, and Wisma Indah on Changi Road. In Turkey and Malaysia, the development of investment waqf was made possible by introducing the stock waqf scheme, while Egypt successfully integrated waqf into various business sectors (Ascarya et al., 2022). In Kuwait, waqf assets are employed via diverse investment channels, with the proceeds subsequently distributed following the stipulations set by the waqif (Latifah & Jamal, 2019).

This phenomenon indicates that waqf performs a significant function in reducing economic inequality through the distribution of benefits. This assertion is further substantiated by (Herindar & Rusydiana, 2022), who asserted that waqf's role is paramount in achieving equity and serving as a catalyst for national development. Consequently, the present study emphasizes the necessity for implementing effective and efficient waqf management, which necessitates the integration of advanced technologies.

The definition of management is not significantly different from its application to waqf management. As (Supanto, 2019) stated, the term derives from the old French 'ménagement,' signifying the art of execution and organization. Management can thus be regarded as an art, as the execution of certain tasks necessitates the expertise of individuals possessing specific skills (Supanto, 2019). The implementation of management involves a series of activities, including planning, organizing, mobilizing, and supervising, to determine and achieve organizational goals through the effective utilization of human and other resources (Supanto, 2019). In waqf, waqf management refers to managing waqf, collecting cash waqf, and building harmonious relationships among nazir, wakif, and society (Nazir et al., 2021). (Ramdani et al., 2022) examine the strategic management aspects of waqf management, including Islamic management, quality, entrepreneurship, marketing, and leadership.

The management of waqf in the modern era has undergone significant developments in line with technological advances, globalization, and the increasingly complex demands of society. Digital innovation is an integral component of waqf management in Indonesia. A notable innovation was the adoption of digital platforms for waqf collection. This development has been shown to facilitate the donation of waqifs (waqf givers) (Syaifullah & Idrus, 2019). This development can potentially enhance community participation in supporting waqf management in a practical and contemporary manner. Furthermore, a strategic initiative has been identified in the form of collaboration between waqf nazirs, Islamic banking, and fintech entities, which is expected to facilitate the establishment of an integrated digital waqf management ecosystem (Fikriyah & Alam, 2021). This partnership has the dual benefit of simplifying the management process and encouraging innovation in waqf services that are more efficient and transparent.

Optimizing social media to socialize waqf is another important innovation (Rohim et al., 2022). The use of social media facilitates the dissemination of information regarding waqf to the public, aligning with contemporary digital habits. This initiative is expected to enhance public awareness and engagement through the significant potential of waqf. Finally, the digital transformation undertaken by the Indonesian Waqf Board (BWI) is an important step in developing waqf management. This transformation encompasses internal digitalization, nazir digitalization, and waqf data integration (Rohim et al., 2022). The overarching objective of this initiative is to enhance transparency, accountability, and efficiency of waqf management in Indonesia.

The selected studies met our inclusion criteria. A literature search was conducted using the Publish or Perish search engines ( OpenAlex, Google Scholar, Crossref, and Scopus). The inclusion criteria were Indonesian and English language studies, studies published between 2020 and 2025, all types of studies (quantitative and qualitative), and fully available and accessible studies. In addition, inclusion was a combination of the keywords "Implementation" AND "Technology" AND "Waqf." On the other hand, studies that did not fit P (population), C (concept), and C (context) were exclusion criteria that were excluded from the research data (Table 2).

The literature search strategy is explained using the PRISMA Flowchart, which is a strategy for database searching, as follows:

In detail, the results of the selection of literature articles as research data are presented as follows:

Literature sources were obtained through searches using the search engines Publish or Perish applications (OpenAlex, Google Scholar, Crossref, and Scopus). Searching available data sources using predetermined keywords, 1289 articles related to the research topic were found. Articles from each available data source came from Scopus (10 articles), Open Alex (201 articles), Crossref (1000 articles), and Google Scholar (78 articles).

Studies Selection

The selection process of studies that have gone through the duplicates removed and year deleted process was then carried out by identification based on the inclusion criteria. Subsequently, articles that passed the identification stage were screened for title, abstract, and keywords to determine which were eligible. At the eligible to include stage, the articles were studied thoroughly to determine whether they fit the research objectives. Suitable articles were then organized into a table with information about the author's name, year of publication, title, research design, results, and conclusions. The results of the analysis and selection of the final study showed that the selected articles were Google Scholar (4 articles), Crossref (5 articles), OpenAlex (5 articles), and Scopus (3 articles).

RESULTS

Bibliographic analysis related to research on the implementation of advanced technology in waqf management reveals various main themes and topics that are the focus of this research. The largest and most central node is waqf, which shows that this topic is the core of the research analyzed. There are two significant branches of waqf: blockchain and cash waqf.

First, blockchain is a significant branch of the waqf theme, which includes accountability and transparency. This data shows that blockchain is vital to waqf management through accountability and transparency. Furthermore, the cash waqf theme is also a concern. This condition means that many studies focus on the waqf types, including cash and digital waqf. Smaller nodes such as technology, collection, and digitalization show that research also covers technology adoption in effectively collecting waqf funds. Smaller nodes also consist of artificial intelligence and fintech, advanced technologies initiated in modern waqf management. The connections between various nodes show the interaction between different themes in the research, such as waqf and advanced technology, which are interrelated in the context of waqf management optimization.

Furthermore, 17 articles were found after filtration. The articles that can be used as references in this study are as follows.

Analyzing the selected articles in Table 3, the literature emphasizes the importance of technology adoption in waqf management. However, some studies have highlighted the challenges and potential of using technology in waqf management. Several countries worldwide have also implemented blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, and digital platforms in waqf management.

The articles analyzed in this study were mainly published in 2024, with five articles, followed by four articles each in 2022, 3 in 2021, 2 in 2020 and 2023, and 1 in 2025. Information regarding the distribution of the publication years of the articles used is shown in Figure 5.

Based on the methods used, qualitative research dominated the selected articles compared with quantitative research. Qualitative research utilized literature review and descriptive analysis methods. The quantitative research employed descriptive quantitative methods and a structural equation model (SEM).

The application of blockchain technology to waqf management presents both opportunities and challenges. The emergence of blockchain in the context of waqf is particularly relevant in the era of digital transformation, as it promises to revolutionize the sector by addressing critical issues, such as transparency, accountability, and efficiency (Mutmainah et al., 2021). The decentralized and immutable nature of blockchain ensures that all waqf transactions are securely recorded, fostering trust among donors and beneficiaries. As highlighted by (Hasbulah et al., 2024), blockchain's cryptographic protection and transparent structure make it a powerful tool for managing waqf funds.

Blockchain can provide significant advantages regarding velocity, transparency, and security (Zulkarnaen et al., 2021). This technology enables real-time monitoring of waqf transactions, making tracking the distribution of funds easier and preventing mismanagement. Despite these advantages, several challenges must be addressed before blockchain can be fully integrated into waqf systems in Indonesia. One such challenge is the lack of regulatory frameworks to govern the use of blockchains in waqf practices (Napitupulu et al., 2023). As blockchain technology is still in its early stages of adoption in the waqf sector, regulators must establish clear guidelines to ensure compliance with Sharia principles and prevent deviations from established norms (Bakar et al., 2020).

Moreover, blockchain can contribute to the development of waqf in the digital age by allowing for more efficient and cost-effective fundraising methods. Blockchain in crowdfunding platforms, such as Finterra's Endowment Chain, provides a transparent system for waqf contributions and rewards (Bakar et al., 2020). This model has been successfully applied in Singapore and Malaysia, where blockchain has been leveraged to enhance waqf fund management and distribution. Similarly, the potential to create digital waqf tokens through blockchain, such as WaqfCoin, further strengthens the adoption of blockchain technology in waqf institutions (Napitupulu et al., 2023).

However, as(Wildana & Imamia, 2022) pointed out, while the concept of blockchain in waqf management is promising, its implementation remains limited. Blockchain could revolutionize how waqf institutions operate, but it requires a paradigm shift in governance and transparency. For instance, blockchain could help waqf institutions overcome traditional barriers, such as corruption and mismanagement, by providing a transparent and auditable system for all transactions (Kosmon et al., 2023).

To fully realize the potential of blockchain in waqf, it is crucial for stakeholders to work together to build regulatory clarity, enhance the capacity of waqf managers, and raise public awareness of the benefits of digital waqf (Zulkarnaen et al., 2021). Additionally, ongoing research and collaboration between experts from various fields, including regulators, blockchain developers, and waqf institutions, are necessary to overcome existing barriers and ensure successful integration of blockchain into waqf management Mutmainah et al., 2021 (Napitupulu et al., 2023).

In conclusion, although blockchain implementation in waqf management offers immense potential for increasing transparency, accountability, and efficiency, significant challenges remain. By addressing regulatory gaps, enhancing data security, and improving stakeholder education, blockchains can play a transformative role in the development of waqf in the digital age ((Hasbulah et al., 2024); Hamid & Alemu, 2023). The future of waqf management, driven by blockchain technology, promises a more transparent and accountable system to benefit donors and beneficiaries.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become one of the most influential technologies in the 21st century (Akhter et al., 2024). AI is defined as the ability of machines to perform cognitive functions usually associated with the human mind, such as perception, reasoning, learning, interaction with the environment, problem solving, decision-making, and creativity (Entezari et al., 2023). The advantages of AI in big data analysis, efficient information gathering, and rapid decision-making processes have led to its relevance in various sectors, including waqf management.

According to (Awalluddin et al., 2024), AI can be utilized to create more accurate risk profiles related to waqf initiatives. AI-based data analysis enables a more effective assessment of the risk level of waqf-funded programmes. (Ismail, 2020) posit that waqf-funded projects frequently encounter delays due to financing challenges and inadequate management competencies, which can result in unanticipated additional expenses, favoring entities with a profit motive. The AI's capacity for meticulous data analysis enables more precise predictions based on prior experiences or projects. It can identify trends, generate forecasts, and help minimize the cost inefficiencies of endowment projects (Awalluddin et al., 2024). Thus, using AI can potentially optimize the efficiency of fund allocation and promptly complete projects.

Additionally, AI can improve the management efficiency of waqf institutions. AI-based digital technologies such as chatbots enable the automation of administrative tasks and reduce manual processes. Waqf institutions can use data processed by AI to design, organize, and implement more effective funding strategies (Awalluddin et al., 2024). These technologies also help institutions adapt to environmental changes such as changes in donor behavior, legal issues, productive asset management, and project innovation.

The digital platform performs multiple functions in the waqf optimization. Various digital platforms facilitate social connections to encourage donations, especially waqf (Kosmon et al., 2023). Using technology via online digital platforms can improve accessibility for the general community, allowing equitable participation in implementing cash waqfs (Hasbulah et al., 2024).

Social media is the most extensively utilized digital channel among the Indonesian population. Due to its extensive usage, social media has emerged as a highly successful platform for waqf campaigning in the community (Rohim et al., 2022). Video marketing is among the most efficacious media for publicizing waqf (Rohim et al., 2022). Media marketing can be a powerful catalyst for engaging the Muslim community in financial waqf initiatives and enhancing awareness and participation in cash waqf (Hasbulah et al., 2024).

Digital platforms can enhance the waqf user experience. Digital systems and mobile applications have been created to enhance waqf monies' collection, management, and distribution (Abdulquadri & Quadri, 2025). Donors can effortlessly contribute to Waqf funds via online platforms, monitor the effects of their donations, and receive updates on the utilization of their contributions. Furthermore, online public disclosure of waqf fund finances may be the most efficient method for reporting funds (Napitupulu et al., 2023). Digital transformation facilitates direct communication with donors via digital channels, including chatbots, social media, and email, enhancing donor involvement and satisfaction (Hatimah et al., 2024).

Furthermore, as advancements in Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) have gained prominence, these technologies can be integrated into Waqf practice. By applying this notion to the management of waqf funds, the operational team can develop the waqf project concept via augmented reality or virtual reality and present it to prospective stakeholders (Awalluddin et al., 2024). This approach fosters effective conservation and provides exceptional customer service on the frontline, enhancing productivity and customer happiness.

Finally, digital platforms make payments more ordinary. Crowdfunding models are viable for cash waqf fundraising (Hasbulah et al., 2024). Waqf institutions might augment their initiatives by creating supplementary waqf collection applications and combining them with diverse e-commerce platforms, thereby increasing the total funds amassed (Napitupulu et al., 2023). Waqf payments via electronic transactions are experiencing significant growth (Rohim et al., 2022). Numerous Islamic banks designated Islamic Financial Institutions Recipients of Cash Waqf (LKS-PWU) have developed applications or websites to enable e-payments. Numerous Islamic fintech companies launched waqf crowdfunding systems to enhance waqf contributions.

Sources: Processed by Authors, 2025

Implementing blockchains, artificial intelligence, and digital platforms could enhance waqf management. Blockchain technology can enhance waqf management accountability. Furthermore, artificial intelligence technology enhances waqf management through distribution, risk assessment, and improved efficiency. Ultimately, digital networks facilitate broader access to waqf, thereby enhancing the collection efficiency. Implementing this technology can be conceptualized as a remedy for waqf management issues, elucidated through agency theory, thereby facilitating the attainment of economic welfare. Nonetheless, the practical implementation of this technology presents distinct opportunities and obstacles. Referring to previous research journals, some opportunities and challenges must be faced when adopting technology for waqf management.

Table 5 shows that adopting technology in waqf management presents opportunities and challenges. The utilization of technologies, such as blockchain and digitalization, offers significant opportunities to enhance transparency, accountability, and public participation in waqf management (Fachrurrazy et al., 2022) (Hatimah et al., 2024) (Mohaiyadin et al., 2022) (Napitupulu et al., 2023). Innovations such as waqf crowdfunding and asset optimization through collaboration with private entities can accelerate asset growth and fundraising (Hasbulah et al., 2024) (Napitupulu et al., 2023). However, challenges such as resistance to change, lack of technological infrastructure in remote areas, vulnerability to cybercrime, deficiency of managerial proficiency, and regulatory uncertainty are obstacles that must be overcome to optimize the potential of technology in waqf management (Bonang et al., 2024) (Hatimah et al., 2024) (Mohaiyadin et al., 2022).

Best Practices of Waqf Digitalization

The digitalization of waqf management has been carried out in various countries worldwide. Although it has its opportunities and challenges, the digitalization that has been carried out has succeeded in transforming waqf practices to be more optimal.