Globally, terrorism has become a major threat to the national security of many nations as it directly affects economic, political, and social welfare. The recent development in security studies has led to the emergence of a new concept called “human security” which focuses on an individual’s safety in a country. To date, Nigeria still experiences security challenges at the hand of Boko Haram, a terrorist sect with the agenda to impose Sharia law on secular Nigerians. Therefore, this research investigated the impact of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria on human security. To accomplish this objective, responses were collected through a qualitative approach using in-depth interviews. Findings indicate that the terror activities of Boko Haram have led to the death of thousands of lives, loss of properties, shortage of food supply, and an increase in number of internally displaced people in the affected regions. Also, the study revealed that education has been drastically affected and small businesses have collapsed, thus increasing the poverty level in the country. The paper concluded that the insurgency has an adverse effect on indispensable factors that constitute human security such as health, education, food and nutrition, small business enterprises, and human rights and liberty.
Terrorism in the 21st century has evolved into a socio-political challenge affecting national and international security. It is considered an instrument used by perpetrators within a society to instigate violence in order to achieve political or ethnoreligious objectives. Since the reported attack by Al-Qaeda on the World Trade Centre in 2001, terrorism has gained international attention, and various efforts have been made by governments and non- governmental organizations (NGOs) to contain its persistence. Currently, terrorism threatens all regions of the world, with a higher occurrence in underdeveloped and developing countries in Asia and Africa. The effects on these regions have been drastic, impacting significant aspects of human well-being, including the economic, social, and political spheres.
Undoubtedly, terrorism has become a significant threat to global security. However, despite the challenges posed by terrorism after the end of the Cold War, studies on security have predominantly focused on state-centric approach to combating terrorism has traditionally focused on military measures, with limited attention given to human security perspectives.
However, the Copenhagen School of Security Studies proposed a broader understanding of security, shifting from a narrow military focus to a human or individual security approach
In Nigeria, religion plays a significant role, as it is considered a way of life. Over 50% of the country’s Muslim population prioritizes religion as a more vital ideology than national identity
community
The group began its terrorist operations around 1999 and has become the primary security threat to the nation, particularly in the northern region where their activities are most prevalent. The group’s ongoing attacks and increasing strength pose significant challenges to Nigeria’s national and human security
In the same vein, the national election and the new political dispensation of the government in 2015 had the primary agenda of defeating Boko Haram and overcoming the security challenges under President Mohammed Buhari, who promised to undermine the group’s power. Prior to this administration, Boko Haram controlled over seventeen local government councils. However, the administration has regained control over these areas, making them safe from the insurgency. Places like markets, motor parks, mosques, and churches are now secure. Nevertheless, reports from the Refugee Documentation Centre Ireland (2018) indicate that the group remains active and continues to pose a source of insecurity in the Lake Chad Basin, a region close to the northeastern part of the country, despite the progress that has been made. In December 2018, the United States Institute of Peace reported that “the ongoing eleven-year Boko Haram insurgency is one of the most violent, destructive, and debilitating internal security challenges in the nation’s history since independence.” Additionally, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) conveyed that “the upsurge in violence in the northeast of Nigeria has forced more than 80,000 civilians to seek refuge in an already congested camp in Borno state, a region with harsh living conditions” (UNHCR, 2019).
Based on the discussion above, this paper aims to examine the impacts of terrorism on human security in Nigeria, specifically focusing on the case of the Boko Haram insurgency in the northern part of the country. The terrorist activities of the Boko Haram sect have direct implications for human security in Nigeria. Much of the existing literature on the insurgency emphasizes the socio-economic factors that contributed to the emergence of this menace, including religious tensions and extremism, political sabotage, fundamentalism, poverty, unemployment, economic deprivation, social injustice, and governance failures (Addaney, 2016;
The degree to which this statement holds true remains debatable. However, it clearly highlights a significant literature gap, as scholars have not concentrated their studies on the insurgency and its impact on human security. Previous studies have primarily focused on social, political, religious, or economic perspectives. Therefore, conducting research on this phenomenon and its impact on human security would contribute to the existing literature on Boko Haram in Nigeria.
Boko Haram is an Islamic radical religious group aiming to impose Islamic ideologies and Sharia law in Nigeria. Its origins can be traced back to the early 2000s when a group of radical Islamic youths practising Islam in Maiduguri, a north-eastern capital city in Nigeria, embarked on their mission to establish a corruption-free society through the implementation of true Islamic laws (Sharia)
However, this led to a military siege of their mosque, resulting in a shootout that claimed the life of Muhammed Ali and seventy other members of the group. The locals in the district began referring to the group as the “Nigerian Taliban.” After the brutal confrontation with the police, the surviving members of the “Nigerian Taliban” returned and settled in Maiduguri. Mohammed Yusuf, the leader of the Maiduguri group, then initiated the construction of a new mosque for the group, which was named the “Ibn Taymiyyah Masjid.” The authorities deceptively abandoned the group, allowing its members to expand into neighbouring states such as Yobe, Bauchi, and parts of Niger
The name “Boko Haram” in the Hausa language can be translated to “Western education is forbidden,” a term given to the group by outsiders and observers to understand its ideology. The group members refer to themselves as Jama’atu Ahl al-Sunnah li Dawah wal-Jihad, which means “People committed to the ways of the Sunnah of the Prophet, proselytization, and struggling or holy war (jihad).” They prefer not to be addressed as Boko Haram due to the misconceptions associated with the term, as it aligns with the Wahhabi School of thought. Their ideology revolves around the creation of an Islamic state, emphasizing an untouched, pure version of Islam without any innovations (Webern, 2016).
According to observers, the group “Boko Haram” established a state within a state in Maiduguri. They had their own large farm, cabinet, and religious police and carried out administrative tasks based on their ideologies. Boko Haram used a distinct recruitment system, targeting civilians by offering healthcare, shelter, and food to attract more members, exploiting the reality of high levels of illiteracy and unemployment, especially in the northern region
Obiekwe (2018) also reports that the insurgency was caused by corruption, misrule, economic marginalization, high unemployment, poverty, and environmental degradation. Idahosa (2015) similarly suggests that cultural ecology and socio-economic factors played a role in the Boko Haram insurgency. The primary sources of the insurgency are attributed to inconsistencies in the national constitution, where the Nigerian state is not clearly defined as either secular or multi-religious. Despite the constitution’s indication that no religion is imposed on Nigeria as a state, nine states in the northern region have proclaimed themselves as Islamic by implementing Sharia law within their territory. Additionally, the insurgency can be traced back to misinterpretations of religious teachings by Islamic scholars and Imams derived from the Quran and hadith. The complexity of the insurgency makes it difficult to tackle, as some unscrupulous parties benefit from the chaos. However, Odidi (2014) disagrees with other scholars, suggesting that Boko Haram may not be the central issue of discussion but rather a group that emerged as a result of certain entities feeling marginalized in terms of leadership, especially the presidential position. These entities allegedly sabotaged then-president Goodluck Jonathan and his administration by providing weapons to the public, causing political havoc.
Inline with this perspective
In addition to the group’s objective of imposing Sharia law across the country, the fanaticism of the movement is fueled by the ideology that whoever fights and dies in the midst of establishing a Sharia state, either through suicide bombing or attacks, will be granted Al-Jannah (paradise) on Judgment Day. The acceptance of these beliefs among the youth stems from the lack of employment, education, and poverty in society. Thus, if the government does not urgently curb the insurgency, it poses significant threats not only to the stability, peace, and security of Nigeria but also to the entire sub- region of West Africa.
In furtherance, Ntamu and Ekepenyong (2014) conducted a study on security affairs in Nigeria and recognized Boko Haram as a national threat. The study identified major factors that the Boko Haram insurgency exploits, leading to the growth of social dissatisfaction. According to
In addition to the aforementioned impacts, the Boko Haram insurgency has led to health and humanitarian crises, arms proliferation, economic losses, challenges in national integration, and an international image crisis in Nigeria.
In the study conducted by Addaney (2016) on the Boko Haram insurgency, various approaches were examined, including the human development theory, which focuses on grievances and inequalities between the southern and northern regions of the country. On the other hand, the Islamic states theory posits that Islamic extremists are the underlying cause of the ongoing violence. The study concluded that despite analyzing these theories, the Boko Haram phenomenon remains exceptionally complex, with no specific authoritative way of analyzing its causes.
Similarly, when examining the causes of insurgency in Nigeria, Muzan (2014) concluded that religious and ideological discontent are the driving factors behind the conflict. Overall, the Boko Haram insurgency has had far-reaching consequences for Nigeria, impacting multiple aspects of society and demanding comprehensive approaches to address its underlying causes.
In order to examine the impacts of the Boko Haram insurgency on human security in Nigeria, this research adopts the structural conflict theory as a framework to understand the causes and impacts of the insurgency. While there are various theories that can be used to explain the phenomenon of Boko Haram, such as the Human Development theory, Theocratic State theory, and the Failed States theory, the study finds the Structural Conflict theory most suitable for examining the root causes of the insurgency and its impacts on human security.
According to
By employing the structural conflict theory, the researcher can gain a theoretical perspective on the phenomenon of the Boko Haram insurgency. The initial objective of Boko Haram was to challenge the corrupt system of the Nigerian government and establish Sharia law throughout the country, aiming to create a society free from corruption and where justice is served. The sect’s origins in Northern Nigeria can be traced back to 2009 when their leader, Yusuf Mohammed, was reportedly killed by police officers in Maiduguri on July 30, 2009. This extrajudicial killing transformed the group from a minor sect to the most violent terrorist organization, targeting security officers and innocent civilians in the country. Consequently, Boko Haram became the most threatening religious sect to the national security of Nigeria. Therefore, the following sections will discuss the variables of the study.
According to the study of
Terrorism is not a new concept and has historical roots dating back to events like the French Revolutionary War’s “reign of terror” and the rebellion of the Zealots in Palestine against Roman control (United States Institute of Peace). However, the 9/11 attacks by Al-Qaeda in the 21st century brought a significant transformation in the global response to terrorism. The United States government presented the “war on terror” as its foreign policy strategy to combat terrorism worldwide. The FBI categorizes terrorism into foreign and domestic terrorism, where the former is foreign-based and supported by external organizations or groups, while the latter refers to acts of terrorism targeting facilities or populations without external intervention.
The lack of a consensus on a single definition of terrorism creates ambiguity and dilemmas for scholars trying to understand its meaning. Mohammed and Abdullahi (2007) highlight that the multiplicity of definitions of terrorism has implications for individual and institutional analysis, often leading to imbalances in people’s perceptions. Acts of violence, including insurgencies aimed at promoting favourable change or reducing marginalization, may be mistakenly treated as terrorism. Governments may respond with intolerance and unwarranted force instead of resorting to peaceful dialogue in such cases of tenable insurgency.
The definition of human security has remained debatable since the universal emergence of the concept. The United Nations (UN) adopted its bases of definition in 1945 as “freedom from want” and “freedom from fear” (Brinkestam, 2015). This concept puts scholars in a dilemma when analyzing human security due to its ambiguous definition. However, in 1994, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) put forward a universal definition of “safety from chronic threats such as hunger, disease and repression” and “protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life’. From the historical concept, the creation of the Commission on Human Security (CHS) was considered as a significant milestone. The commission’s goals were to: (a) rally support for and advance understanding of human security; (b) further, develop the idea as an operational tool, and (c) lay out a specific implementation strategy. In this respect, the objectivity of the concept is the provision of human safety from severe and pervasive threats and situations.
Human security has emerged to be a critical issue in the 21st century within the realm of security studies. The concept is set to posit that the security of human lives should be the core objective of national and international security policy. The development emerges in contrast to the traditional concept of state-centric security. Presently, human vulnerabilities are complex and are threatened not only by the rise of new wars but also by nontraditional security acts such as disease, natural disasters, environmental threats and terrorism.
In line with that,
Towards the end of the cold war, international organizations like the United Nations held a meeting in check for global peace and cooperation, deliberating on issues like the Rwandan genocide in 1994. According to
The 20th-century concept of states-centric approach as the referent strategy for security was not formed until the 18th century. As cited in
Ever since the definition of human security from UNDP, the idea adopted two main aspects within the security dimension, which are ‘freedom from fear’ and ‘freedom from wants. From that point of view, human security in practice leans towards empowerment and practice. According to the core humanitarian standard (CHS), empowerment is defined as the “strategies that the concept of human security aims to enable individuals to develop resilience in the face of difficult situations and emphasizes empowerment and protection. According to the CHS (2003), empowerment involves promoting development at the community and regional levels to enhance human security, while protection entails the implementation of strategies by states, international agencies, NGOs, and the private sector to shield people from threats beyond their control.
However, there are criticisms and debates surrounding the definition of human security. Tamminem (2018) points out the unresolved debate between the broad approach of “freedom from wants” and the narrow approach of “freedom from fear.” The role of states in providing security or threatening the lives of citizens is also unclear. Additionally, there is a lack of analytical purposes or measurement schemes when it comes to human security.
According to
Research design aims at establishing the correlation that exists between the data collected and the research questions and arriving at a conclusion
There are several types and approaches in research, but this study adopts the qualitative research method using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach. According to
Population refers to the collection of all objects, subjects, or participants that meet a given set of criteria. A population is a collection of objects and individuals who share a trait that the researcher is interested in analyzing. Also, the validity of the results of a study cannot be assured without choosing the appropriate sample and population for research
According to
The informants and their respective affiliations
| Respondents | Positions | Affiliations | Countries |
|---|---|---|---|
| Respondent A | Lecturer | Umar Musa Yar’ adua University, Katsina State | Nigeria |
| Respondent B | Lecturer | Umar Musa Yar’ adua University, Katsina State | Nigeria |
| Respondent C | Lecturer | Bayero University, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent D | Staff | Ministry of Environment, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent E | Staff | Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Investment, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent F | Lecturer | Universiti Utara Malaysia | Malaysia |
| Respondent G | Staff | Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Investment, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent H | Lecturer | Usman Danfodio University, Sokoto State | Nigeria |
| Respondent I | Ph.D. Candidate | Universiti Utara Malaysia | Malaysia |
| Respondent J | Ph.D. Candidate | Universiti Utara Malaysia | Malaysia |
| Respondent K | Lecturer | Bayero University, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent L | Staff | Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Kano State | Nigeria |
| Respondent M | Staff | Ministry of Finance, Kebbi State | Nigeria |
| Respondent N | Security Officer | NA | NA |
| Respondent O | Security Officer | NA | NA |
NA: Not Available for confidential reason
This study employed primary data through semi-structured in-depth interviews and through telephone interviews with respect to the cost, time, logistics and availability of the respondents. The semi-structured interview involves numerous planned questions, but the interviewer is free to modify the order and wording of the questions. The objective is to attain as much information from the respondents by getting them to talk on their own terms. As such, questions tend not to be very specific, allowing for a range of possible responses. In addition, the study adopted thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a widely used method of data analysis that involves identifying and analyzing patterns, themes, and concepts within qualitative data. It allows the researcher to take the data
and group it into themes. The themes enable the researchers to put the interviews in context and derive meaning from them. It is useful for finding out respondents’ views, opinions, and perspectives regarding the subject matter.
Health is one of the pillars of human security. Whenever the health of individuals is affected, it directly affects the health security of that individual and poses a danger to continuous survival. The activities of Boko Haram have clearly destructed not only the health of the people in the affected regions but also destroyed their health centres and facilities. In view of the findings from
Informant (A) stated:
The health effects the Boko Haram insurgency has created in the northern region are unmeasurable. The death tolls and civilian casualties from the attacks of the group have forced away medical professionals to relocate from the region to seek protection for themselves. This has resulted in a lack of adequate medical professionals in hospitals and clinics. To the extent that medical facilities have shut down when their duties are required most. He further stressed that even in the absence of Boko Haram previously, Nigerian medical services were extremely poor, let alone medical services when insurgencies are at high levels. (In- depth interview with informant A, conducted on 30th November 2019)
This assertion correlated with
In the view of another Informant (B), he stated that:
Not only the physical injuries attained by civilians are critical issues, but also the psychological effects it has on the people. How
do you think a teenage child will feel when he hears his mother or father has died from a bomb blast in a mosque or church while they are praying for his well-being? This will clearly put him in a psychological disorder and will affect his mental health. (In-depth interview with informant B, conducted on 30th December 2019).
Clearly, there were psychological effects that followed up despite the insurgency being occasionally curbed. The acts will have long- lasting memory effects on the victim’s life. Based on the report of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, OCHA (2014), the sect has attacked several health workers and facilities causing difficulty in accessing health services in the region. According to United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the health facilities of the Chibok community are damaged; moreover, prescribed drugs were either unavailable or inadequate
Education as the backbone of societal development is a key to human security. Education secures all aspects of human endeavour, be it social, economic or political. Boko Haram is internationally famous for the kidnapping of 300 Chibok girls from a school. This led to an international movement, ‘Bring Back Our Girls’, which the then first lady of the United States, Michelle Obama, participated. Clearly, the insurgency has affected a great number of educational sectors in the northern region. This includes the killing of innocent teachers, lecturers, and educators in the region. This discussion was reinforced by the expression of a respondent as follows.
The informant (C) highlighted that:
“The insurgency has first chased away most of the prominent lecturers and educators of Maiduguri schools and universities. I am a lecturer back in Nigeria. It is impossible for me to deliver lectures at any university that I heard Boko Haram has attacked or can potentially attack”. (In-depth interview with informant C, conducted on 30th December 2019).
According to
On October 5, 2015, the Teacher’s Day, Micheal Olukoya, the national president of the Nigerian Union of Teachers, stated that the Boko Haram insurgency has resulted in the deaths of 600 teachers (Pulse.ng, 2015). These acts have a negative impact on education across the region as parents do not feel comfortable sending their children to school anymore in fear of either attacks or abduction. Amalu (2015) pointed out that these issues all occurred in a region which was already educationally backward. When the rate of illiteracy and school dropout is high, there is a tendency that violence will increase and persist in Nigeria
In the case of Boko Haram impacts on food security,
When asked on the effect of Boko Haram on food and nutrition, he designated that apart from the human loses, the most significant impact is on the agricultural aspect. He indicated that no more farmers in the region at this particular moment. The production of the crops and food materials such as rice, millet, and other such food items have
dropped hugely. The farmers in the region normally farm for their own conventional use and small business, however, from 2011 when the activities of Boko Haram reached a high peak, all the farmers and their small business collapsed. (In-depth interview with informant D, conducted on, November 30, 2019)
Interviewee C, has also stated that:
“Not only the farmers have to relocate for security reasons, but the trade routes to which their products are being transported are dismantled. It is hard for any farmer to transport his products from Maiduguri to Kano with the hope of reaching there safely. The roadblocks by security officers alone have made it difficult for them to move their products. This was as a result of several factors such as: (1) the police and military cannot identify who is or is not a Boko Haram member, so when they see an individual or groups of individuals traveling with a lorry or truck filled with products, they become suspicious of what they are carrying. In such occurrence, the farmers have to upload all their product for clearance which takes the time and energy as there are multiple roads blocks on the road. (In-depth interview with informant C, conducted on December 3, 2019).
In the same view,
“No one can move a kilometer due to fear, most of them have fled their homes”
Accordingly, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) has also examined the issue, and reported that the intensity of the sect has caused the largest inflationary risks to the economy. These can be supported with the findings of
Undoubtedly, human security revolves around prevention of hunger and starvation. However, with the halt in production of food substance, the risk of food insecurity becomes high. It will become more challenging for households and people to obtain enough food and nourishment if food costs continue to climb. Individuals will be at risk of hunger, famine, malnutrition, and possibly death as a result. In places mostly affected by the insurgency and wars generally, malnutrition rates are high
One core aspect of human security is the ‘freedom from wants’ of individuals such as food, shelter, clothes and daily essential materials. Most of the small businesses in the northern region operate on a substantial level; business owners function to satisfy their daily ‘wants’. Today many of these small businesses have closed permanently as a result of the Boko Haram insurgency. Dauda (2014) observed that small shops in the region have closed either as a result of military personnel taking over to establish their base, forcing them to relocate or closed down from fears of attacks by the insurgency itself. These businesses include restaurants, local tea sellers and dried and roasted beef sellers. Also, the responses of an informant A further articulate the discussion above as submitted below:
Individuals have to go out and seek a way to survive and feed themselves. In Nigeria, this can happen either to the person working in the public sector, such as the government and its institution or to the private sector which is either a company or self-employed. In the aspect of private sectors, most of the businesses have collapsed due to the Boko Haram phenomenon, either through the deaths of the owners or fear of investment. On the self-employed aspect, issues such as the cutting off of all communication lines and electricity by the government have dismantled their ability to function entirely. This type of business includes welding and telecommunication services. (In-depth interview with the Informant A, on 30 November 2019).
According to
According to
There is no single study that can indicate the number of deaths caused by Boko Haram from the bombing and hit-and-run attacks or suicide missions. In Kano state alone, I have witnessed several attacks, such as the one on the Bompai police station. The insurgency has abused the human right to the extreme level. There is no more freedom of speech, especially when the topic is Boko Haram, because they easily send assassins to kill you, especially if you are a prominent or public figure. There are no freedom of movement; you cannot go anywhere either due to fear of attacks or lack of security clearance by the police. The insurgency has made life unbearable in the affected areas. (In-depth interview with informant C, conducted on December 3, 2018).
According to the United States Department of State, the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (DRL) in 2015 reported that Boko Haram had abducted over 2,000 individuals from the local government areas. When these victims are captured, they face severe mental and physical pain and suffering from the members of the Group. In some cases, they are sold as slaves to the Boko Haram members for payment. Furthermore, the insurgency affects the right to religious practices in the country. The insurgency has taken the lead in inflicting religiously-related violence and egregious breaches of religious freedom in Nigeria, the United States Commission on International. Religious Freedom said. This was maintained by the stand of Informant (B), who observed that:
Even though human rights are weak in Nigeria overall, the Boko haram insurgency has made it worse. Muslims are afraid to practice their religion peacefully in the country; the Christians are afraid of Muslims due to the misconception that Boko Haram activities represent Islam principles. To an extent, some Islamic clerics shave their beard entirely to disguise their image to look similar as members of the group. Note that keeping a long beard is a good practice in Islam to emulate the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). (In-depth interview with informant B, conducted on December 1, 2019).
Furthermore, the insurgency forced the closure and destruction of nearly 13,000 churches in Northern Nigeria between 2000 and 2014. In Taraba State, 171 Christian-owned
churches, 314 homes, 39 businesses, and 15 family complexes were all demolished between December 2013 and July 14, 2015.
As this study tends to examine the impact of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria on human security, the following Table 2 summarizes the insights from the consequences of the impact of the insurgency on the components of human security in Nigeria (i.e., health, education, food and nutrition, small business enterprises, and human rights and liberty).
Consequences of the insurgency on the human security
| Human Security | Impact of the Insurgency |
|---|---|
| Health | The health of the people in the affected regions have been severely affected by the activities of Boko Haram Health facilities and centers have been destroyed The rate of child and maternal mortality have increased Progress in healthcare programme such as polio vaccination has been truncated |
| Education | In the Northern region, attacks by the Boko Haram has disrupted education Many educators and teachers have been forces to flee their schools Students were displaced while schools have been burnt down There is fear to send the children to school among the parents |
| Food and Nutrition | The food security in the region have been undermined Farmers have been deserted to abandon their lands Disruption in the trade routes for food transportation Food insecurity due to a decline in agricultural production |
| Small Business and Enterprises | Due to the insurgency, small businesses have been permanently shut down Due to fear, business owners have either closed down or relocated Self-employed individuals were affected by disruptions in electricity and communication Economic decline due to decrease in business activities |
| Human Rights and Liberty | Boko Haram has affected human rights by committing violence and violence Restriction in movement and freedom of speech Occurrence of human right abuses and abductions Both Christians and Muslims were affected from the disruption of their religious practices. |
The following section proffers solutions to the adverse effects of the above-mentioned menace caused by the insurgency.
This paper objectively puts forward that the Boko Haram insurgency has a significant negative impact on human security in Nigeria. Boko Haram has destroyed not the national security of Nigeria but also the pillars that constitute human security in Nigeria. The findings of the paper showed that when it comes to food and nutrition, the insurgency has destroyed agriculture and food production in the northern region. Farmers are no longer producing crops due to fear of activities of Boko Haram; the markets in the region have shut down, forcing these farmers out of business. Schools in affected areas have shut down due to the series of kidnappings of students by the sect. The health of many were affected as millions were injured and thousands were killed. Finally, small businesses in affected zones have shut down for fear of continuous attacks.
To curb the insurgency and increase human security in Nigeria. This paper advocated that the Nigerian government need to address various issues to effectively combat the Boko Haram insurgency. The first solution was to provide effective governance and leadership. It was identified that one factor that led to the sustainability of the threat was corruption and lack of effective governance by the previous administration of Goodluck Jonathan between 2009 and 2015. As such, providing a good scheme of leadership will help eradicate the corruption issues in the country. Furthermore, good governance means that all the sectors and institutions of the country will start functioning to their potential mandate. Similarly, the government needs to address the social and economic issues in the country. These issues include poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy. These are the factors that support and privilege the Boko Haram sect in recruiting its members to support their objectives.
Developing policies and strategies to reduce and eradicate the social problems will help prevent the sustainability and reoccurrence of the insurgency in the future. In addition, the government needs to adopt new counter- insurgency strategies in fighting Boko Haram. Since it is evident that the coherent strategy used previously was ineffectual to halt the group. The studies propagate that the government should adopt a Hybrid doctrine approach to effectively counter the insurgency. Finally, there is a need for border control to contain the activities of the Boko Haram members within the northeast region. This should be a multilateral approach with the neighbouring countries (Chad, Niger, Cameron) sharing borders with Nigeria.