Child marriage, defined as marriage before the age of 18, remains a widespread probl em in many developing countries, including Indonesia. Despite legal efforts to curb this pra ctice, it persists due to socioeconomic, cultural, and educational factors. Law No. 16 of 2019, which amends Law No. 1 of 1974 on Marriage, establishes the minimum legal age for marri age at 19 for both women and men. According to (U.N.I.C.E.F., 2023) and in Ayuandini et al., (Aditya & Waddington, 2021) approximately one in nine women in Indonesia aged 20-24 was married before the age of 18, with two-thirds of these women becoming pregnant by that age. This has significant i mplications for their health, education, and economic opportunities.

Household food insecurity, characterized by limited or uncertain access to sufficient, s afe, and nutritious food, also remains a pressing issue in Indonesia. According to (Sjahrir & Wibisono, 2021) in the World Bank Policy Note, the COVID-19 pandemic further exacerb ated this problem. By May 2020, 37.7 percent of households reported eating less than usual in the previous week due to financial or resource constraints, up from 22 percent in 2019. T he proportion of households experiencing food shortages due to insufficient resources also ro se from 19 percent to 31.2 percent.

Child marriage disrupts education, economic opportunities, and social stability (Msuya, 2020), all of which are critical to household resilience and food security. This study examines the link between child marriage and household food insecurity in Indonesia, utilizing microdata for a more comprehensive analysis.

The link between child marriage and food insecurity represents a critical yet understudied challenge in Indonesia. While the adverse effects of child marriage on education and health have been extensively documented ((Aditya & Waddington, 2021); (Cameron et al., 2023)), its implications for food security remain less explored. Child marriage often leads to early childbearing and increased dependency ratios, which can strain household resources and undermine food security.

This research is framed within the theoretical perspectives of Human Capital Theory and Household Resource Allocation Theory. Human Capital Theory, as articulated by (Becker, 1964), posits that investments in education and health enhance individual productivity and economic outcomes. Child marriage disrupts these investments, reducing economic opp ortunities and increasing the risk of food insecurity. Household Resource Allocation Theory (Browning, 1998) emphasizes that intra-household decisions regarding resource distribution directly affect well-being. Child marriage can distort these dynamics by shifting resources t oward early childbearing and caregiving responsibilities, potentially exacerbating food inse curity. These theories provide a foundation for examining how child marriage influences ho usehold food security dynamics.

The evidence consistently indicates that child marriage restricts access to e ducation and employment opportunities, resulting in unfavorable socio-economic outcomes. However, research specifically addressing the link between child marriage and household fo od insecurity remains limited. Studies by Kansiime et al. (Kansiime et al., 2021) and (Béné et al., 2021) show that disruptions to household economic stability significantly contribute to food insecurity, suggesting that child marriage, through its impact on economic stability, m ay also influence food security. In addition, (Scott et al., 2021) find that early marriage is ass ociated with adverse nutritional outcomes, further underscoring a possible connection to foo d insecurity that requires deeper investigation.

Most existing studies focus on the educational, health, and economic consequences of child marriage, with limited attention to its relationship with household food insecurity, pa rticularly in the Indonesian context. Additionally, much of the existing research relies on m acro-level or qualitative analyses that do not fully capture household-level dynamics ((Martinez, 2021);(Mohajan, 2022)). Quantitative studies utilizing microdata are needed to better und erstand how child marriage affects food security, accounting for factors such as household c omposition, income, and regional variations.

This study addresses this gap by analyzing microdata to investigate how child marria ge influences household food insecurity in Indonesia. Specifically, it examines the relations hip between age at marriage and various indicators of food insecurity, including food availa bility, access, and stability within households. The findings of this research are expected to provide empirical evidence to inform policies and interventions aimed at addressing both ch ild marriage and food insecurity, thereby improving socioeconomic outcomes for affected ho useholds.

Child marriage, defined as a formal or informal union before the age of 18, remains a widespread practice, particularly in developing countries. This practice is deeply rooted in s ocioeconomic, cultural, and traditional norms that often regard early marriage as a strategy for economic stability, family honor, or protection against perceived social risk (Efevbera & Bhabha, 2020). It reflects entrenched gender inequalities, disproportionately affecting girls, w ho are often compelled to abandon education and assume domestic responsibilities prematu rely ((Fan & Koski, 2022);(Paul, 2020)). As a member of the United Nations, Indonesia has com mitted to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include eliminating child marr iage by 2030 as part of efforts to achieve gender equality and empower women and girls ((Judiasih, 2020);(U.N.I.C.E.F., 2021)).

Child marriage has significant consequences for health, education, and economic oppo rtunities, particularly for girls. It restricts personal development and exposes young individ uals to heightened risks of health complications, violence, and poverty (Fan & Koski, 2022). A lthough global efforts aim to reduce its prevalence, child marriage persists due to a combina tion of legal, economic, and cultural factors.

Educational attainment, a key determinant of human capital development, is significantly hindered by child marriage. Numerous studies have demonstrated that early marriage disrupts schooling, resulting in lower educational outcomes and limited skill acquisition (Soler-Hampejsek et al., 2021). According to the (Nations, 2023), girls who marry before the age of 18 are less likely to complete secondary education, restricting their future economic independence and perpetuating cycles of poverty, as these young women are less equipped to secure stable employment and contribute to the economic development of their households and communities.

In addition, child marriage increases health risks for young brides. Early childbearin g, commonly associated with child marriage, is linked to higher rates of maternal and infan t mortality (Nations, 2023). Complications from pregnancy and childbirth are among the leading causes of death for adolescent girls in developing countries (Nour, 2009). Young brides are also more vulnerable to gender-based violence and possess limited autonomy ove r reproductive decisions, with adverse consequences for both physical and mental health. In particular, such poor conditions not only affect the individuals directly involved but also pos e broader socio-economic consequences, such as increased healthcare costs and reduced wor kforce participation.

The economic implications of child marriage are profound, affecting both individual e conomic participation and household income. Early marriage curtails women's ability to par ticipate in the labor market, thereby limiting their economic contributions (Carpena & Jensenius, 2019) The International Center for Research on Women (Women, 2017) found that women who marry early are less likely to be employ ed and earn significantly less than those who marry later. This reduction in economic partic ipation and earnings potential also affects household income, as families with child brides o ften face increased economic strain due to early childbearing and the inability of the young wives to contribute financially. Consequently, child marriage perpetuates poverty within ho useholds and communities, limiting overall economic growth and development.

Child marriage alters household dynamics in ways that can intensify food insecurity. The early onset of family responsibilities and childbearing increases household size without a proportional rise in economic resources, thereby straining food availability and access (Gambir et al., 2024). Households with young brides often experience greater food insecurity du e to their limited economic contributions and higher dependency ratios resulting from early childbearing. Furthermore, child marriage can disrupt intra-household resource allocation, as young wives typically have less bargaining power in decisions related to food and nutriti on. This imbalance can lead to inefficient distribution of food resources, further exacerbatin g food insecurity within these households.

The persistence of child marriage is reinforced by socio-cultural norms that present challenges for policy intervention (Baraie et al., 2023). Traditional beliefs often regard early marriage as a means to achieve economic security or preserve family honor. Addressing child marriage requires comprehensive strategies that confront these underlying norms while promoting access to education and economic opportunities for girls. Programs focusing on awareness-raising, improving access to education, and providing economic incentives to delay marriage have shown promise (U.N.I.C.E.F., 2021). Legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms are also essential to protect girls’ rights and ensure their access to education and economic opportunities.

Household food insecurity refers to the inability to secure adequate food due to insufficient financial or other resources. It encompasses a range of experiences, from anxiety about food supply to hunger and malnutrition (FAO et al., 2023). Food insecurity is multifaceted, involving not only food quantity but also quality and the social acceptability of food acquisition practices. According to Ashby et al. (Ashby et al., 2016) identify three core dimensions of food insecurity: availability (adequate food supply), access (affordable, appropriate food), and utilization (proper dietary intake). These dimensions reflect the complex socioeconomic and environmental factors that influence a household’s ability to maintain consistent, nutritious, and culturally acceptable food consumption.

Various factors contribute to food insecurity, including economic conditions such as p overty and unemployment, which directly reduce household purchasing power (Enakhe & Tamuno, 2021). Social factors, such as education, household composition, and social capital, al so play a role. Households with lower educational attainment or single-parent households f ace higher risks of food insecurity (Kara & Kithu, 2020). These systemic factors highlight the need for integrated policies to address the root causes of food insecurity.

Household food insecurity has serious health and socioeconomic consequences. It is li nked to malnutrition, obesity, and chronic illnesses such as diabetes and hypertension (Mosadeghrad et al., 2019). Malnutrition arises due to the consumption of inadequate or low-qual ity food, leading to deficiencies in essential nutrients. Food-insecure households often resort to consuming low-quality, calorie-dense foods, contributing to both undernutrition and obesi ty. Moreover, food insecurity adversely affects mental health, increasing the prevalence of s tress, anxiety, and depression due to the uncertainty and stigma associated with food scarci ty (Pourmotabbed et al., 2020). The health impacts of food insecurity create a vicious cycle, as poor health further exacerbates financial constraints and reduces the ability to achieve f ood security.

The impacts of food insecurity extend beyond immediate health concerns to significan tly impact children's development and educational outcomes. Children from food-insecure h ouseholds are at greater risk of experiencing developmental delays, poor academic performa nce, and emotional difficulties (Gallegos et al., 2021)(Shankar et al., 2017). Nutritional deficie ncies during critical growth periods can impair cognitive development and hinder learning abilities, resulting in lower academic achievement and reduced school attendance. Food ins ecurity also affects children's social interactions and emotional well-being, contributing to h igher rates of absenteeism, attention problems, and social withdrawal. These developmenta l and educational setbacks have long-term consequences, limiting future economic opportun ities and perpetuating cycles of poverty and food insecurity across generations. Therefore, a ddressing household food insecurity is not only crucial for safeguarding health but also for s upporting children's overall well-being and long-term socio-economic prospects.

The socio-economic implications of household food insecurity extend beyond individua l health to broader societal challenges. Food insecurity undermines economic stability by dr iving up healthcare costs, reducing labor productivity, and constraining economic developm ent. Individuals from food-insecure households are more likely to experience illness and dis ability, resulting in higher healthcare expenditures (Berkowitz et al., 2018) and income loss due to reduced work capacity or absenteeism. These conditions ultimately weaken overall e conomic productivity and growth. In addition, food insecurity reinforces social inequality, di sproportionately affecting marginalized and vulnerable groups (Berry, 2020) and contributin g to persistent disparities in health, education, and economic outcomes. Addressing food ins ecurity is therefore essential not only for improving individual and household welfare but al so for fostering inclusive and sustainable socio-economic development.

This study uses data from the 2022 National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS), cond ucted annually by the Statistics Indonesia (BPS). SUSENAS collects individual-level data o n demographic, educational, social, and economic indicators and serves as a key source for monitoring socioeconomic dynamics in Indonesia. The dataset comprises 1,233,933 individu als nationwide. The study classifies the sample into three groups: (i) individuals who engag ed in child marriage (130,098 individuals), (ii) women who engaged in child marriage (112,4 70 individuals), and (iii) men who engaged in child marriage (17,628 individuals).

A logit regression model is employed to analyze the relationship between child marriage and household food insecurity using this detailed microdata. The model is suitable for examining the probability of food insecurity based on various individual and household characteristics, given its ability to capture non-linear relationships, its minimal distributional assumptions, and its flexibility in incorporating multiple independent variables (Amalina et al., 2023) (Gujarati, 2003).

= (1)

The dependent variable is a binary indicator, coded as 1 if an individual resides in a f ood insecure household and 0 otherwise. The main independent variable is a binary indicat or for child marriage, coded as 1 for individuals who married before the legal age and 0 for t hose who married at or above the legal age. Control variables include individual and house hold characteristics such as gender, education level, employment type, savings ownership, a nd internet use. Gender is coded as 1 for females and 0 for males. Education level is categor ized as primary (no schooling or elementary education), secondary (junior or senior high sch ool), and higher (diploma, undergraduate, or higher education). Employment type is coded a s formal (1) for individuals working in regulated sectors and informal (0) for those in unreg ulated sectors. Savings ownership is a binary variable, with 1 indicating formal savings and 0 otherwise. Internet use is coded as 1 for individuals who used the internet in the past thr ee months and 0 otherwise.

Detailed definitions of variables and descriptive statistics for the study sample are presented in Table 1.

Child marriage remains a significant social problem with implications for household food insecurity. Based on the descriptive statistics presented in Table 1, the prevalence of child marriage in Indonesia remains high, with 130,098 individuals in the sample classified as having engaged in child marriage. These individuals are generally characterized by low educational attainment, concentrated at the primary education level, and employment in the informal sector. Additionally, many lack access to financial services and technological resources, as indicated by low rates of savings account ownership and internet use. Access to financial services and technology, including the Internet, plays an increasingly important role in enhancing individual well-being through improved access to information and economic opportunities(Heponiemi et al., 2020) (Ma et al., 2020).

Based on the characteristics of individuals who engage in child marriage, as presented in Table 2, along with the logistic regression estimation results for the full sample, it is evident that child marriage significantly increases the risk of household food insecurity. Individuals who marry before reaching the legal age are more likely to experience food insecurity compared to those who marry at an appropriate age, in accordance with government regulations. This finding is consistent with previous research highlighting that child marriage adversely affects individual welfare by increasing vulnerability to poverty and food insecurity (Bartels et al., 2021) (Olarewaju, 2021). Moreover, child marriage has been linked to heightened risks of reproductive health complications and maternal mortality ((Nguyen & Wodon, 2014); (Nove et al., 2014)). It also elevates the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, as well as cervical cancer (Pourtaheri et al., 2023).

Beyond child marriage, individuals with certain socio-economic characteristics are ge nerally more susceptible to food insecurity. These characteristics include (i) low educational attainment, (ii) employment in the informal sector, (iii) lack of access to financial services, a s indicated by the absence of formal bank account ownership, and (iv) limited internet acces s. Individuals with lower levels of education are significantly more likely to experience food insecurity than those with secondary or higher education ((Adams et al., 2020);(Kent et al., 2020);(Polsky & Garriguet, 2022)). Limited educational attainment restricts skill development, red ucing individuals' competitiveness in the labor market. As a result, individuals with low ed ucation levels are more likely to engage in informal sector employment and depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihoods.

Access to financial services, along with advancements in technology, information, and communication, plays a critical role in reducing food insecurity. Individuals with limited ac cess to financial services face higher food insecurity risks due to constrained capital, restric ted income-generating opportunities, and reduced access to nutritious food ((Penne & Goedemé, 2020);Ref#49]). Likewise, technological development and access to information and c ommunication channels enhance food security by improving access to knowledge, expandin g food networks, and facilitating resource distribution. Consequently, individuals with poor internet access or limited technological exposure are more vulnerable to food insecurity. Th ese findings are in line with previous research demonstrating the role of technology in impr oving food security outcomes (Brander et al., 2021)(Hasegawa et al., 2021)(Kousar et al., 2021).

The regression results presented in Table 3 indicate that men who marry as children exhibit a higher likelihood of experiencing food insecurity compared to women in similar circumstances. The coefficient for the child marriage variable is larger for men, suggesting that early marriage disproportionately increases food insecurity risk among men. One plausible explanation is the traditional expectation for men to serve as primary income earners within households. Early marriage may curtail their educational attainment and skill development, limiting their ability to secure stable employment and adequately provide for household needs. These findings contrast with much of the existing literature, which emphasizes the negative consequences of child marriage primarily for women, such as heightened exposure to intimate partner violence and reduced access to education and economic opportunities ((Fan & Koski, 2022); (Nguyen & Wodon, 2014); (Pourtaheri et al., 2023)).

Despite these gender-specific findings, the characteristics of men and women experiencing food insecurity show substantial similarities. Individuals facing food insecurity, regardless of gender, tend to (i) have low educational attainment, (ii) work in the informal sector, (iii) lack access to financial services, and (iv) have limited internet use. These shared characteristics highlight the importance of promoting education and enhancing access to financial and technological resources for both men and women. Improving these factors can strengthen individuals’ labor market competitiveness, increase access to nutritious food, and reduce vulnerability to food insecurity.

The relationship between child marriage and food insecurity underscores the broader socioeconomic consequences of early marriage. Food insecurity contributes to inadequate nutrition, which in turn affects child growth and development and exacerbates high stunting rates. Efforts to address child marriage and its socioeconomic impacts require coordinated action from various stakeholders, targeting both the internal and external dimensions of individual resilience. Internally, improving educational attainment is crucial. Externally, expanding access to labor markets, financial services, and technology can enhance individuals’ socioeconomic standing and reduce food insecurity.

Promoting higher education is a fundamental strategy to reduce child marriage rates and mitigate its adverse effects. Educational interventions should encompass both formal education, which provides foundational knowledge, and informal education, which enhances practical skills and competencies. Individuals with higher educational attainment are more likely to secure stable employment, achieve higher income levels, and access adequate nutrition. Education also increases awareness of the risks associated with child marriage and the importance of delaying marriage to improve long-term welfare outcomes.

In addition to education, expanding access to financial services and promoting technological literacy are essential for reducing the socioeconomic consequences of child marriage. Access to financial services can enable individuals to engage in income-generating activities and improve household food security. Similarly, access to information and communication technologies can enhance knowledge and awareness, particularly regarding the importance of nutritious food. Policymakers, particularly at the national and local government levels, must prioritize human capital development while ensuring equitable access to financial services and technology. Such integrated approaches can help reduce child marriage rates, mitigate food insecurity, and promote sustainable socioeconomic development.

While this study provides valuable empirical evidence on the relationship between child marriage and household food insecurity in Indonesia, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations related to its population scope. The findings are based on data from the 2022 National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS), which, although extensive, primarily captures conditions within Indonesia. As such, the results may not be directly generalizable to other countries or cultural contexts where the determinants and implications of child marriage and food insecurity may differ due to distinct social norms, economic structures, and policy environments. Furthermore, while the study highlights important gender differences within the Indonesian context, it does not explore intersectional factors such as ethnicity or regional disparities in depth, which could further nuance the understanding of how child marriage affects household food security. Future studies could expand by comparing diverse settings or by focusing on subnational populations to enrich insights into these dynamics.

Child marriage remains a critical issue in Indonesia, contributing to heightened risks of household food insecurity. The findings of this study confirm a positive association betwe en child marriage and the likelihood of experiencing food insecurity. Individuals who marry before reaching the legal age face a greater probability of food-insecure conditions compared to those who marry at an appropriate age. In addition to child marriage, factors such as (i) l ow educational attainment, (ii) employment in the informal sector, (iii) limited access to fin ancial services, and (iv) poor internet access also increase vulnerability to food insecurity.

The results further reveal that men who marry as children face a higher risk of food i nsecurity compared to women in similar circumstances. Nonetheless, the characteristics of i ndividuals experiencing food insecurity are largely consistent across genders, highlighting t he importance of comprehensive interventions that target both men and women. Improving access to education is essential to reducing both child marriage and food insecurity. Higher educational attainment enhances individuals' ability to compete in the labor market, secure formal employment, and achieve economic stability. Moreover, access to financial services a nd digital technology plays a vital role in strengthening household resilience. Utilizing fina ncial resources and technology can expand access to nutritious food and reduce the risk of f ood insecurity.

Food insecurity not only affects household well-being but also has long-term implicati ons for child growth and development, particularly through its contribution to high stuntin g rates. Addressing these interconnected challenges requires coordinated efforts among sta keholders to strengthen both internal and external capacities, particularly in rural and urb an communities. Internally, initiatives should focus on expanding access to education. Exte rnally, policies must promote job market opportunities, improve access to financial services, and support the use of technology and internet connectivity. Such integrated approaches are essential for improving overall welfare and reducing food insecurity risks.