The mental health of working women has become a crucial issue, along with the increasing participation of women in both global and national labor markets. Globally, female labor force participation has shown an upward trend between 2020 and 2024 (Organization, 2023). In Indonesia, data from the World Bank indicate an increase in female labor force participation from 51.36% in 2020 to a projected 53.22% in 2024 (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and The Pacific, 2025). Data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) also show an increase, with female participation reaching 55.41% in February 2024 (B.P.S., 2023) and even approximately 60.18% in 2023 (B.P.S., 2023). Although female labor force participation is increasing, wage gaps and limitations in leadership positions remain significant challenges in the workplace (Women, 2024).

Beyond quantitative disparities, working women also face substantial dual-role challenges, such as managing professional work demands while simultaneously fulfilling domestic responsibilities like child and family care, especially among married women with children. Studies indicate that these dual roles increase the risk of mental health disorders among working women, with reports that 64% of working mothers experience clinical anxiety due to role conflict (Althammer et al., 2021). This work-family conflict negatively impacts their quality of life and psychological well-being, particularly when inadequate social support and organizational policies (Pérez et al., 2022). These conditions are exacerbated by social and cultural norms that still expect women to focus more on household matters, thereby limiting their opportunities for professional development (Organization, 2023). In addition to dual-role burdens and workplace challenges affecting women's mental health, ethical risks in implementing mental health research within workplace settings also warrant careful consideration. (Nurissama & Basrowi, 2025) identified several potential ethical concerns, including breaches of confidentiality, coercion by supervisors, and conflicting interests between organizational goals and the well-being of employees (Nurissama & Basrowi, 2025). These risks underscore the importance of designing mindfulness and other psychosocial interventions with strong ethical safeguards, particularly in workplace cultures with rigid hierarchies or inadequate mental health awareness. In this context, mindfulnessbased interventions have emerged as effective approaches to managing psychological stress and improving the mental well-being of working women. Mindfulness is defined as full awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of present experiences (Basrowi et al., 2024).

Mindfulness is "the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally" (Jankowski & Holas, 2020). Therapeutic forms include Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), which involves meditation, body scan, and yoga to reduce stress; Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), a combination of cognitive therapy and mindfulness exercises to prevent depression relapse; and Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC), which involves training in self-acceptance and empathy to counter internal criticism. These practices train individuals to non-reactively accept thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations, thereby reducing stress responses and enhancing emotional regulation (Lin et al., 2024).

Empirical studies have demonstrated that mindfulness interventions significantly reduce stress levels and emotional exhaustion in workplace settings. A meta-analysis by Bartlett et al. (2019) reported that mindfulness interventions reduced stress symptoms by 29% with a medium effect size (d = 0.48; p < 0.001) and decreased emotional exhaustion by 24% among working women (Vonderlin et al., 2020). Other studies have shown that 4–6 week mindfulness training can significantly improve quality of life and reduce depressive symptoms in women with dual roles (p < 0.05) (Pérez et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of mindfulness is not without implementation challenges, particularly within the cultural and work contexts of women in developing countries. Barriers such as lack of time, organizational support, and social stigma often diminish the success of these intervention (Kuyken et al., 2016). Therefore, a systematic review integrating empirical evidence from various studies is required to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness and identify challenges in implementing mindfulness among working women (Mohebi et al., 2021).

This study has advantages because it employs a systematic review method that compiles and evaluates data from multiple studies, specifically emphasizing female workers. This approach provides a more contextual synthesis of information, unlike previous research that tends to be limited or has not deeply emphasized gender-based distinctions. Most previous studies have focused on general worker populations or specific professions such as healthcare workers, without explicitly addressing the experiences of working women who face dual-role burdens and complex gender dynamics (Fida et al., 2023).

Differences between previous studies and the current study include the limited literature concerning the impact of mindfulness on the mental health of working women, particularly in the context of work–home conflict and dual roles. For instance, a study by (Walsh et al., 2025) and showed that daily mindfulness reduced work–home conflict among women in leadership positions, but this study focused specifically on women in leadership roles and did not generalize to all working women across sectors and job levels (Walsh et al., 2025). Most other workplace mindfulness studies still emphasize psychological outcomes (stress, burnout, well-being), but rarely explore the barriers, challenges, and adaptation needs of mindfulness interventions for working women (Bowles et al., 2022).A study in by (Lin et al., 2024), involving female nurses, highlighted the importance of work–life balance and workplace spirituality as mediators of mindfulness benefits. However, its focus remains limited to the healthcare profession and has not addressed implementation challenges in other sectors or among working women in general (Lin et al., 2024). There is also a gap in evaluating the effectiveness of various forms and models of mindfulness interventions adapted for the specific needs of working women. Several previous studies also acknowledge substantial variation in mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) protocols, in terms of duration, content, and delivery format (online/offline, individual/group). There has not been a comprehensive review of the most effective intervention models for working women with diverse backgrounds, cultures, and workload ((Fida et al., 2023); (Ong et al., 2024)). Moreover, most existing meta-analyses and systematic reviews have not specifically integrated quantitative and qualitative data regarding effectiveness and the challenges of implementing mindfulness for working women. Prior studies tend to focus on positive outcomes and have not emphasized barriers such as stigma, time constraints, lack of organizational support, and the need for intervention customization to suit the characteristics of working women in developing countries (Marotta et al., 2022).

Therefore, this study aims to examine the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions on the mental health of working women, identify implementation challenges, and provide recommendations for future research. By conducting a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), this study will evaluate mindfulness interventions applied to working women and identify research gaps that remain unaddressed in the current literature. The findings of this study are expected to provide significant scientific contributions and practical implications for developing more effective intervention programs to support the mental well-being of working women across various industrial sectors, particularly in countries with similar conditions.

The literature review conducted in this study follows a systematic literature review (SLR) approach. The SLR process is divided into three main phases: planning, conducting, and reporting.

The study selection process began with identifying 2,400 articles from Scopus (n=1200) and Google Scholar (n=1200). After removing 621 duplicates, 1,779 articles remained. Screening of titles and abstracts led to excluding 1,738 articles due to irrelevance, lack of mindfulness interventions, or not focusing on working women. This result left 41 articles for full-text review. 27 of these were excluded due to the absence of mindfulness interventions (n = 6), restricted access (n = 3), irrelevant populations (n = 6), unsuitable outcomes (n = 6), non-eligible study designs (n = 6), and download issues (n = 3). Ultimately, 14 studies were included. Quality appraisal was conducted using the JADAD Score, JBI Checklist, and MMAT based on study design to ensure methodological rigor and minimize bias.

A total of 14 articles were identified in this review, comprising a variety of research designs including randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-experimental studies, pre-post studies, and cross-sectional surveys. These studies involved diverse professional populations such as nurses, doctors, teachers, university employees, and athletes. They utilized various mindfulness interventions in format, duration, and delivery medium. Most of the research articles come from China and Italy. The majority of studies (n=10) explicitly implemented structured mindfulness interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), Mindfulness-Oriented Meditation (MOM), and Mindfulness–Acceptance–Commitment (MAC). Intervention durations typically ranged from 6 to 8 weeks, with several studies including follow-ups extending up to 3 months post-intervention. Of the 10 experimental studies, nearly all reported significant reductions in negative psychological variables such as stress, burnout, depression, anxiety, and compassion fatigue. In addition, improvements were observed in mindfulness traits, self-compassion, resilience, and work-life balance. For example, a study by (Gherardi-Donato et al., 2023) found a 41% reduction in stress and a 38% reduction in anxiety following an online MBSR program for Brazilian nurses (Teixeira et al., 2024). Similar findings were reported by (Pérez et al., 2022), who noted reductions in burnout and compassion fatigue among geriatric nurses following an online MBSR+MBCT intervention (Pérez et al., 2022).

Studies by (Mäkinen et al., 2024) and (Liu et al., 2022) demonstrated the impact of mindfulness on professional well-being and workplace safety culture among healthcare workers (Mäkinen et al., 2024). In (Liu et al., 2022) study, adverse events dropped by 32% following an 8-week mindfulness meditation intervention. Likewise, (Althammer et al., 2021) found that a 3-week self-guided mindfulness training improved psychological detachment and satisfaction with work-life balance, with more potent effects among participants who preferred integrated role boundaries ((Althammer et al., 2021); (Yang et al., 2023)).

Additionally, observational studies such as those by (Lin et al., 2024) and (Bowles et al., 2022) highlighted the natural influence of trait mindfulness. Bowles' study showed a dose-response relationship between lifetime hours of meditation and psychological well-being, with a plateau effect after 500 hours of practice. Some studies also highlighted moderating variables such as resilience level, as in (D’Antoni et al., 2022), where mindfulness had a greater effect on participants with low resilience. (Mohebi et al., 2021)added a sports context perspective, demonstrating that MAC training improved grit and self-compassion among elite female athletes (Bowles et al., 2022) (D’Antoni et al., 2022) (Mohebi et al., 2021)

In general, all studies supported the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions in enhancing indicators of mental health and psychological well-being across clinical, educational, and workplace contexts. The following section presents a comparative table summarizing the effectiveness assessment of different intervention types based on the effect sizes.

This systematic review confirms that mindfulness interventions are significantly effective in improving the mental health of working women, particularly in reducing stress, burnout, and anxiety, and enhancing psychological well-being and self-compassion. The most effective interventions identified were structured, protocol-based approaches such as MBSR and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT).

The implementation challenges identified include time constraints, logistical barriers, low participant retention, and methodological limitations such as a lack of control groups and participant selection bias. Based on these findings, future research should prioritize flexible, culturally contextualized, and workplace-specific interventions, supported by long-term evaluations.

This study thus provides a significant scientific contribution by expanding the understanding of mindfulness effectiveness and laying the groundwork for more adaptive and broadly impactful interventions to support the mental well-being of working women across sectors and cultures.

We extend our gratitude to Varians Statistik Kesehatan and the Public Mental Health Advocacy Caucus for organizing the bootcamp and providing guidance that helped improve the quality of our manuscript.