2656-2804Indonesian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE)ijolae2656-28042655-920XUniversitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta10.23917/ijolae.v7i1.23908Metacognitive Reading Strategies and Their Impact on Comprehension: Insights from Rural EFL LearnersPahrizalNovriIndonesiapahrizal.novri@gmail.comVintoniAridemIndonesiaSotlikovaRimajonUzbekistanYa'akubHajah Zurinah HajiBrunei DarussalamFaculty of Tarbiyah and Teaching Science, IAIN KerinciForeign Language and Literature Department, Webster University in TashkentLanguage CentreUniversiti Brunei Darussalamhttps://ror.org/02qnf3n86BruneiCorresponding author: Novri Pahrizal, Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teaching Science, IAIN Kerinci .Email:pahrizal.novri@gmail.com211020242211202418362872024610202414102024Copyright (c) 2025 Novri Pahrizal, Aridem Vintoni, Rimajon Sotlikova, Hajah Zurinah Haji Ya'akub2025Novri Pahrizal, Aridem Vintoni, Rimajon Sotlikova, Hajah Zurinah Haji Ya'akubhttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.Metacognitive Reading Strategies and Their Impact on Comprehension: Insights from Rural EFL Learners
The need for more understanding and implementation regarding the importance of metacognitive reading strategies has constrained reading skills learning among EFL learners. While these strategies improve reading comprehension, learners must still utilize them effectively, reducing their performance in reading texts critically and independently. This study examines the influence of metacognitive awareness reading strategies on reading comprehension among rural EFL learners. This study exploited cross-sectional design, one of two major designs of survey methods. This study employed 114 EFL learners of the English Department in Indonesia. This study employed two instruments, namely a questionnaire to measure EFL learners’ metacognitive awareness reading strategies from MARSI-R by Mokhtari et al. (2018) and documentation obtained from the scores of the reading courses in the third semester. This study used quantitative statistical analysis, descriptive statistics to analyze the ability level of EFL learners to read comprehension, and inferential statistics to determine the influence of metacognitive awareness reading strategies on reading comprehension among EFL learners. The result of this study revealed that reading comprehension among EFL learners is at a moderate level. EFL learners are highly aware of metacognitive reading strategies, especially problem-solving strategies. These subscales also strongly correlate with each other and metacognitive awareness reading strategies for improving readers’ metacognitive ability to understand texts. Then, metacognitive reading strategies have a significant relationship but a weak impact on reading comprehension, explaining only slight variability. Regularly employing metacognitive strategies can improve reading performance and effectiveness, making learners more strategic and skilled in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their reading comprehension.
EFL learnerscross-sectional designMARSI-Rmetacognitive awarnessmetacognitive reading strategiesreading comprehensionreading performanceFile created by JATS EditorJATS Editor1. Introduction
Reading is one of the most important- language skills at all levels of education (Wahyuningsih & Citraningrum, 2019); (Wingard et al., 2020); (Ritonga et al., 2024) . Reading comprehension becomes one of the fundamental skills in the language learning process. Reading is defined as one of four primary skills in language teaching, and it plays a prominent role in a language teaching program (Namaziandost et al., 2022). Read- ing skill is a tool to understand information and knowledge from texts as a reader (Ebadi & Ashrafabadi, 2022); (Vaughn et al., 2024) . In addition, reading skills also play a crucial role in assisting the development of communication skills (Koda, 2018)because a good comprehension of written text or a good reader can be the foundation for developing writing, speaking, and critical thinking skills.
Reading, one of the major receptive skills of language besides listening, is an alternative way to provide access to language input, taking an essential role in acquiring a first or second language. Reading is a skill that allows readers to gather new information through a text. Having good reading com- prehension, learners can explore various learning resources (Anderson, 2003); (Ediger, 2006); (Weisi et al., 2012) . So, the reading process is interactive and recognizes the rela- tionship between the components of the reader, text or genre, and context.
Reading comprehension comprises two levels of understanding: comprehension of explicit information from text and inferences drawn from the information (Wagner, 2004). This process relies on the interaction between three main components: reader characteristics (knowledge, capacities, and memory), the text (text representations and features), and the activity or the reading purpose (Snow, 2002). Accurate comprehension occurs when the reader's knowledge and skills match the characteristics of the text and the reading activity. However, a mismatch between these components can interfere with comprehension. Stronger readers use reading strategies to enrich comprehension, whereas weaker readers employ these strategies to overcome the limitations (Alderson et al., 2016).
In an institutional setting, reading skills are considered academic skills and proficien- cy for learners. Reading as a skill has re- ceived a lot of attention in almost every ped- agogical situation because the purpose of reading and the tasks it fulfills can be vari- ous, and it can affect the learning of other components as well (Linse & Nunan, 2005); (Nunan, 2015). Through reading skills, learn- ers can gain, learn, synthesize new infor- mation, and interpret the information as a learning resource. Reading activities have been a foundation for synthesizing learning and the critically evaluated and could be an essential tool in self-directed learning (Grabe, 2009); (Hodges, 2015); (Grabe & Stoller, 2019) .
Therefore, reading activities are complicated activities for interpreting information. Readers should recognize and comprehend this information through the principles of the reading process. To understand text information, a reader should have strategies for the reading process. Reading strategies are monitoring systems that include selfreflection, awareness of text interaction, and the relationship between strategy and text comprehension (Teevno & Raisani, 2017)(Al Raqqad et al., 2019)(Ali & Razali, 2019)(Banditvilai, 2020)(Yapp et al., 2023).
Reading strategies are a monitoring sys- tem that involves readers reflecting on their own reading processes, being aware of their interaction with the text, and understanding how reading strategies relate to text compre- hension. Based on the reading process, read- ing strategies are divided into two categories: bottom-up and top-down. Bottom-up strate- gies require knowledge of linguistic features, including letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammar, and discourse markers. Top-down strategies employ the reader’s intelligence and experiences to grasp the text (Yang et al., 2019); (Tabata-Sandom, 2020); (Kakvand et al., 2022) .
Applying strategies to comprehend texts is inseparable from metacognitive strategy. The knowledge and application of metacog- nitive strategies, including awareness of the reading purpose and the overcoming of comprehension difficulties, are essential for the good comprehension of texts, particularly in the reading context of a second or foreign language (Eskey, 2005); (Li, 2010); (Urquhart & Weir, 2014). Students use Metacognitive reading strategies to monitor and evaluate their comprehension of reading materials. The strategies involve various techniques that enable learners to be more active and aware as readers, gaining a better and more in-depth understanding of texts (Khurram, 2023) . Thus, metacognitive awareness read- ing strategies are essential in enhancing text comprehension.
However, in the reality of EFL contexts in higher education, the use of metacognitive awareness reading strategies has been varied and unequally applied, regardless of the importance of these strategies in enhancing reading comprehension. Several studies have revealed that among the various strategies, global reading strategies emerged as the most employed, whereas support reading strategies were the least utilized (Beşkardeşler & Kocaman, 2016). Regarding gender, it was clear that female students used reading strategies more often than their male counterparts (Fauzi & Ashadi, 2019). In gender terms, female students are more frequently and more aware of employing reading strategies than male students, which could impact their better reading performance. This finding is supported by previous research consistently showing the prominence of reading strategy awareness in female students (Chen & Chen, 2015)(Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). So, it implies that the learners are unaware of the importance of metacognitive reading strategies, which could hamper their reading comprehension.
In addition, several studies have been emphasized in investigating the importance of reading strategies, including both bottom- up and top-down processes, and their combination can enhance teachers’ performance in diverse EFL classrooms, especially in Irani- an EFL education (Kakvand et al., 2022); (List et al., 2021) , it leaves a gap in understanding how English language learners explicitly use these strategies in university settings.
Generally, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies influences reading and text comprehension. Metacognition enables readers to be aware of and consciously control the thinking process, enhancing the reading and comprehension of the text in a deep and meaningful manner. Previous studies have shown that metacognitive awareness of reading strategies is essential in improving reading achievement and ability (Meniado, 2016)(Shang, 2017)(Ghaith, 2020)(Muhid et al., 2020); teaching metacognitive reading strategies was shown to significantly improve students' reading comprehension, with the experimental group showing better results than the control group (Al-Kiyumi et al., 2021); Metacognitive strategies in reading involve monitoring and self-regulation that address the reading process and outcomes (Lian & Seepho, 2012); and an application of these strategies improves text comprehension while developing strategic competencies, making readers more skilled and adaptive (khellab et al., 2022). Thus, metacognitive awareness enables students to actively control and evaluate their comprehension of texts, thereby improving their effectiveness and efficiency in reading.
The urgency of this study is to investi- gate the metacognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension among English foreign language learners at univer- sity and their influences. The result could be a consideration for enhancing the develop- ment of readers’ competencies and the quali- ty of EFL teaching-learning. Understanding how metacognitive awareness affects reading comprehension is crucial in helping EFL learners develop more adaptive and efficient reading skills. In the context of globalization and the need for English language acquisi- tion, this research is highly relevant in pre- paring learners for success in an increasingly demanding academic and professional envi- ronment. Shortly, this study highlighted and resolved the study questions, including “How do EFL Learners use metacognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension” and “How is the correlation between each other subscale and their rela- tionship with overall metacognitive aware- ness reading strategies” and “Is there a statis- tically significant influence between EFL learners’ metacognitive reading awareness strategies and reading comprehension”.
2. Method
This study exploited cross-sectional de- sign, one of two major designs of survey methods. A cross-sectional research design allows one to discover and understand the overview and relationships of research varia- bles simultaneously. As (Creswell, 2012) points out that a cross-sectional design is one type of survey research method in which data are collected from a sample or population at a single time to investigate the phenomena and conditions at which the data are collect- ed. In addition, (Leavy, 2017) revealed that cross-sectional design studies only collect data at a particular time to understand the distribution of attitudes, perceptions, and practices in the population, which serves as
the basis for further analysis.
Utilizing a cross-sectional design pro- vides a relevant perspective regarding the purpose of this study, which is to provide an overview of metacognitive awareness read- ing strategies and reading comprehension variables and to measure the relationship between these variables at one specific point in time. Nevertheless, this design is limited in explaining cause-and-effect relationships since the data is recovered at the current moment or time, not the dynamic changes among variables.
This study’s population was English Department learners at the Islamic State Col- lege of Kerinci, Indonesia, with 114 EFL learners. Taking a sample of this study em- ploys a total sampling technique, comprising 114 EFL learners who had taken an academ- ic reading course. According to (Creswell, 2012), this technique provides an opportuni- ty to minimize potential biases that may arise from errors in selecting the sample.
Regarding instruments, this cross- sectional design employed two instruments: a questionnaire and documentation. Measur- ing EFL learners of metacognitive awareness reading strategies conducted by adopting the questionnaire from 15 items of Metacogni- tive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inven- tory-Revised (MARSI-R) developed by (Mokhtari et al., 2018). This inventory was conducted on the validity of using a promi- nent instrument in measuring metacognitive awareness reading strategies among EFL learners. MARSI-R is a further development of the original inventory of MARSI, also developed by (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002), consists of 15 items from three board strate- gies, including Global Reading Strategies (GRS), Problem-solving Strategies (PSS), and Support Reading Strategies (SRS). This inventory employs a new 5-point scale for measuring learners’ metacognitive awareness reading strategies, ranging from “I have nev- er heard of this strategy before” to “I know this strategy well, and I use it often while reading.” The grid of the questionnaire is in the following Table 1.
GRS can be considered a common or general reading strategy intended to organize the stage for the reading act.
1, 3, 5,
12, 13
Problem-Solving Strategies
PSS
PPS is employed to comprehend problems related to
textual information.
7, 9, 11,
14, 15
Support Reading Strategies
SRS
SRS contains a support mechanism or tool aimed at ensuring the responsiveness of reading.
2, 4, 6,
8, 10
Furthermore, the reliability of Cronbach's alpha coefficient for MARSI-R indicates a higher alpha value (α = 0.850). MARSI-R is categorized as highly reliable when collecting data (Mokhtari et al., 2018). Concerning the collected data, EFL learners were divided into four groups to avoid concentrating on giving responses to the MARSI-R questionnaire in a classroom setting. EFL learners had one hour to complete the responses to the questionnaire. This allocated time was given to determine the accurate and unbiased responses. This study used documentation as a second instrument to gather data on EFL learners' reading comprehension. Reading comprehension was obtained from the scores of the reading courses in the third semester.
The techniques of this study employed descriptive statistics and inference statistics related to data analysis. A descriptive statis- tic is to calculate the mean, the mode, the median, the standard deviation, and the per- centage (Creswell, 2012); (Vogt & Johnson, 2015) with using SPSS 20. This study con- ducted a descriptive statistic (such as mean and percentage) to determine the levels of metacognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension based on the guidance of scores interpretation on MARSI- R instrument asTable 2(Mokhtari et al., 2018)and employed the categories of level score based on a distribution normal involv- ing a mean (μ) and a standard deviation (σ) (Azwar, 2020) . For reading comprehension among EFL learners, as shown inTable 3.
The Guidance of Score Interpretation on MARSI-R Instrument
Category
Score
High level of awareness
3.5 or higher
Medium level of awareness
2.5 – 3.4
Low level of awareness
2.4 – lower
The Categories of Score Interpretation on Reading Comprehension
Category
Score
High level of comprehension
(μ + 1.0 σ) ≤
X
Medium level of comprehension
(μ – 1.0 σ) ≤
X
< (μ + 1.0 σ)
Low level of comprehension
X
< (μ – 1.0 σ)
Furthermore, an inference statistic was used to calculate the Pearson product- moment correlation and a simple linear re- gression analysis (Field, 2009) . This study involves two variables: metacognitive awareness reading strategies as the inde- pendent variable and reading comprehension as the dependent variable. A Pearson prod- uct-moment correlation enabled us to meas- ure the correlation between each subscale and the correlation between overall meta- cognitive awareness reading strategies. A simple linear regression analysis allowed the researcher to determine how much metacognitive awareness reading strategies affect reading comprehension among EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners. Prior to inferential analysis, the data of this study should be examined through prerequisite tests such as the normality test using Kolmo- gorov–Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk test as the assumptions of the parametric test (Field, 2009) as follows.
The Results of Normality Test
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Reading Comprehension
Metacognitive Awareness
N
114
114
Normal Parametersa,b
Mean
75.9995
55.2544
Std. Deviation
5.16088
4.22762
Most Extreme Differences
Absolute
0.058
0.077
Positive
0.058
0.077
Negative
-0.031
-0.064
Test Statistic
0.058
0.077
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.200c,d
.096c
The data would be normal if the signifi- cance (p) value is more significant than 0.05. The value of sig. (p) employed the value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed). Based on the table above, the Asymp. The significance values of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test are 0.200 and 0.096 for variables of reading compre- hension and metacognitive awareness read- ing strategies, respectively; the values were greater than 0.05. Data on metacognitive awareness, reading strategies, and reading comprehension is normal distribution. There- fore, this study could further analyze para- metric statistical techniques using simple linear regression analysis.
Proving the simple linear regression analysis could be calculated by several steps: (a) measuring the equation regression of var- iables, (b) calculating the value of regression linearity and regression significance from variables, and (c) measuring the value of correlation and determination coefficients.
3. Result and Discussiona. Descriptive Statistics of Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies and Reading Comprehension among EFL Learners
1) Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies among EFL Learners
Metacognitive awareness reading strategies comprise the following subscales: global reading strategies (GRS), problem-solving strategies (PSS), and support reading strategies (SRS). The following tables and figures disseminated the results of overall and subscales of metacognitive awareness reading strategies.
The Results of Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies
N
Total Mean
Mean
Level
Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies
114
55.25
3.68
High level of Awareness
Global Reading Strategies
114
18.24
3.65
High level of Awareness
Problem-Solving Strategies
114
18.75
3.75
High level of Awareness
Support Reading Strategies
114
18.26
3.65
High level of Awareness
Table 5 reported that metacognitive awareness reading strategies used among EFL learners have a high level of awareness (mean 3.68). For subscales of MARS, respectively, global reading strategies (QRS), problem-solving strategies (PSS), and support reading strategies (SRS) provide a high level of awareness with mean 3.65, 3.75, and 3.65. These results reveal that EFL learners have a good awareness of various metacognitive reading strategies. The high awareness of problem-solving strategies (PSS) indicates that EFL learners are highly skilled in overcoming their reading difficulties. The high awareness of global reading strategies (QRS) and reading support strategies (SRS) also indicates that EFL learners can effectively manage and support their reading process. This hints at the importance of teaching, which emphasizes the development of metacognitive awareness to improve reading skills in a language learning context.
The Results of Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies used by EFL Learners
Intervals
Overall
GRS
PSS
SRS
High level of awareness
3.5 or higher
90 (79%)
75 (65.8%)
82 (71.9%)
69 (60.5%)
Medium level of awareness
2.5 - 3.4
24 (21%)
36 (31.6%)
32 (28.9%)
44 (38.6%)
Low level of awareness
2.4 or lower
3 (2.6%)
1 (0.9%)
Total
114
Distribution of Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies Used by EFL Learners
Image
Most EFL learners have a high level of metacognitive awareness reading strategies, with 90 learners or 79% of high awareness. Despite this, EFL learners often need help comprehending complex academic text caused by a lack of vocabulary, grammar sentences, and various meanings or interpre- tations. In the current context, metacognitive awareness reading strategies become naviga- tors to help a reader understand a difficult text. This is in line with relevant studies; metacognitive awareness reading strategies among EFL learners have a high level of awareness, and MARS is a crucial aspect for EFL learners as readers in understanding a text of abstract and technical academic context (Do & Le Thu Phan, 2021); (Zhang & Seepho, 2013), and as the guidance for com- prehending the complex academic text in a formal educational setting (Ab Aziz et al., 2023) . Therefore, EFL learners are generally highly aware of metacognitive reading strat- egies when engaging with academic or school-related materials, such as book chap- ters, journal articles, and stories.
Metacognitive awareness reading strategies comprise three subscales that play a prominent role in comprehending a reading Metacognitive Reading Strategies and Their Impact on Comprehension: Insights from Rural EFL24 Learners text. According to the findings, 69 to 82 EFL learners are highly aware of these three strategies. This indicates that EFL learners, as readers, are aware of the effective way to read and comprehend complex text. (Manoli & Papadopoulou, 2012) and (Ahmadi et al., 2013) argue that metacognitive awareness reading strategies are planned consciously, cautiously, and goal-oriented to be employed by readers in effectively facilitating text comprehension. This finding aligns with (Wu et al., 2021) study; by employing metacognitive awareness reading strategies, EFL learners could more actively plan, control, and evaluate the process of understanding the reading text.
Problem solving required in learning ac- tivities (Ijirana et al., 2021) . Problem-solving strategies have become highly important in reading resources as a piece of information. When EFL learners faced reading difficulties on various resources or texts, EFL learners employed problem-solving strategies. PSS emphasizes students' active involvement in the learning process. Through this strategy, learners practice becoming more self- organized within the learning process, which enables learners to be more responsible for making up for any misunderstanding while reading a difficult text. It is supported by(Oxford, 2011), who noted that learners who applied problem-solving strategies signifi- cantly improved comprehension of academic texts. This finding is consistent with previous studies by (Wallace et al., 2021) that EFL readers applied more problem-solving strate- gies when reading texts than other strategies. (Darwish, 2017-01-01) affirmed (Ghaith & El-Sanyoura, 2019), (Marboot et al., 2020),(Rıanto, 2022), (Mortazavizadeh et al., 2022), and (Naz et al., 2024) also noted in the study result that students mainly provide more re- vealing problem-solving reading strategies during reading than the other two strategies. EFL learners of this study used problem- solving strategies that have a dominant role in helping readers get information from texts/resources. EFL learners also employed several techniques (such as adjustment of time, speed, and on track; re-reading; and guessing the meaning) when having difficul- ties in cognitive and non-cognitive aspects (such as distracted, unknown words/phrases) of comprehending the information of texts.
However, problem-solving reading strat- egies tend to become the first preference of learners when facing any difficulties in read- ing, regardless of their awareness of global and support reading strategies and ineffec- tively in applying these strategies. Therefore, when learners have a barrier in reading texts, they tend to employ problem-solving strate- gies. The dependence of this strategy could support learners in accomplishing short-term academic tasks. Still, in the long-term aca- demic tasks, it would hamper independent reading skills and reduce the effectiveness of learners’ performance in situations that re- quire more comprehensive reading comprehension.
2) Reading Comprehension among EFL Learners
The following table and figures are de- scriptive statistics and the categories of score interpretation on reading comprehension among EFL learners.
Descriptive Statistic of Reading Comprehension Employed by EFL Learners
N
Min
Max
Mean
Standard Deviation
Skewness
Kurtosis
114
63.63
89.32
76.00
5.16
0.31
0.08
Result of Level Reading Comprehension among EFL Learners
Intervals
Learners
%
High Comprehension
81.16
≤ X
15
13.16
Medium Comprehension
70.84
≤ X <
81.16
78
68.42
Low Comprehension
X <
70.84
21
18.42
114
Distribution of Level Reading Comprehension among EFL Learners
Image
Referring to the table above and Figure 2, learners’ reading comprehension results represent an average performance. It indicat- ed that most learners achieved a medium level of comprehension, with 78 learners or 68.42%. EFL learners’ reading comprehen- sion distribution tends to spread equally across the assessment scale, representing the diversity in students’ academic comprehen- sion within a reading learning context. This finding is supported by (García & Cain, 2014) and (Rastegar et al., 2017) studies show that most EFL learners achieved a me- dium or moderate reading comprehension level, reflecting their cognitive development in understanding the text in the target lan- guage (English). One of the causes is that most EFL learners only use the basic strategy to understand a text without the involvement of deeper critical thinking or a complicated understanding of the text (Pressley, 2002) .
b. The Correlation between Each Other Subscale and Their Relationship with Overall Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies
Measuring the correlation emphasized a Pearson product-moment correlation. The result is shown as a result of Heatmap 1.
Correlation Matric of Each Subscale and Overall Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies
Image
Proving the correlation between each subscale, global reading strategies (GRS) and problem-solving strategies have a good and positive correlation (r = 0.692). The correlation indicates that a reader has a high metacognitive awareness of global reading strategies (i.e., having a purpose for reading) and tends to utilize problem-solving reading more frequently in the reading process. In line with previous studies, global reading strategies positively correlate with problemsolving strategies (Mokhtari et al., 2018)(Ondé et al., 2022)(Börekci & Börekci, 2023)(Ab Aziz et al., 2023). The relationship between GRS and PSS does not reflect the benefit interactions of both strategies but indicates that these strategies are an integral part of the practical readers' experiences. GRS provides the basis for understanding, while PSS gives a way of coping with the difficulties of reading a text.
Global reading strategies (GRS) and support reading strategies (SRS) correlate strongly and positively (r = 0.732) and are significant statistically. This finding is consistent with other studies by (Börekci & Börekci, 2023), (Ondé et al., 2022)(Ab Aziz et al., 2023). Considering real and practically relevant, a reader utilizes global reading strategies to comprehend the overall structure and purposes of reading text and support reading strategies to help a reader with difficulties comprehending overall reading text. These strategies are supported by using notes, discussing others, and using a dictionary.
Problem-solving strategies (PSS) and support reading strategies (SRS) indicate an adequate strong and positive relationship (r = 0.614). These findings are similar to (Mokhtari et al., 2018)(Ondé et al., 2022)(Ab Aziz et al., 2023) studies that PSS has a strong and positive relationship with SRS. The positive relationship of each subscale implies that a good reader could continually implement several metacognitive reading strategies to enhance their comprehension of the text. So, a reader utilizing problemsolving strategies in comprehending the difficulties of reading text in the short term and using support reading strategies could reinforce the comprehension of text by seeking the broader information of text or applying the tool of understanding a text (Mokhtari et al., 2018).
Then, in heatmap 1, the finding shows that the relationships between three subscales (GRS, PSS, SRS) and overall metacognitive awareness reading strategies are positive and powerful (respectively, 0.908, 0.856, and 0.895) relationships. The relationships indi- cate that the three scales have complementary roles and are established jointly in meta- cognitive awareness reading strategies to enhance reading comprehension and com- prehension of the text. It is consistent with the opinion of (Afflerbach et al., 2008) that metacognitive awareness reading strategies allow learners to plan, control, and evaluate comprehension while reading to enhance their understanding of texts independently. This finding is consistent with (Salataci & Akyel, 2002) study. As confirmed by (Deliany & Cahyono, 2020), having an aware- ness of implementing strategies in the think- ing process and understanding the infor- mation in the text would enable the readers to map out the strengths and weaknesses.
These three strategies do not work indi- vidually; they are complementary in support- ing readers to comprehend the text better. GRS contributes to planning and monitoring the reading process, PSS resolves the barriers faced while reading, and SRS helps readers by providing additional tools to reinforce their comprehension. The powerful relation- ship between these strategies suggests that their well-balanced and integrated utilization could significantly enhance reading and comprehension skills, including readers' metacognitive awareness of their reading process. So, these strategies could improve learners’ reading comprehension, under- standing of complicated and complex text, and academic performance in the English learning context.
c. Influence of Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies on Reading Com- prehension
The regression equation of metacogni- tive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension was measured from the SPSS output ( Table 9. Coefficienctsa). The values of the constants and coefficients for the re- gression Ŷ = 62.727 + 0.240X. The results were also obtained thit = 2.124 and p-value = 0.036/2 = 0.018. The p-value is smaller than the significance level of 0.05, indicating that this result is not a coincidence. Robust evi- dence demonstrates that metacognitive awareness of reading strategies positively influences learners’ reading comprehension.
The Result of the Regression Equation
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
1
(Constant)
62.727
6.267
10.009
.000
Metacognitive Awareness
.240
.113
.197
2.124
.036
a. Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension
The foremost finding from the analysis is that the constant value (62.727) indicates the standard value of reading comprehension among EFL learners without any influence of metacognitive awareness reading strate- gies. Meanwhile, the regression coefficient value (0.240) and the significance value (0.018) indicate a positive and significant improvement and change in reading compre- hension due to any improvement of metacognitive awareness reading strategies. These findings are consistent with other studies, which found metacognitive aware- ness reading strategies contribute to enhanc- ing reading comprehension (Tavakoli, 2014)and MARS wielded an indirect relationship on reading comprehension of foreign or sec- ond language context (Guo, 2018) . Metacog- nitive awareness reading strategies are cru- cial to comprehending a reading text in a second or foreign English language (Rupp et al., 2006) .
Result of Linearity Test on Regression Analysis
ANOVA Table
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Reading Achievement * Metacognitive Awareness
Between Groups
(Combined)
545.902
20
27.295
1.030
0.436
Linearity
116.533
1
116.533
4.399
0.039
Deviation from Linearity
429.369
19
22.598
0.853
0.640
Within Groups
2463.819
93
26.493
Total
3009.721
113
Other evidence of the influence of meta- cognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension revealed the linearity and significance test for regression analysis line equation. The linearity test could be ob- tained by calculating the deviation from line- arity (Pedhazur, 1997); (Darlington & Hayes, 2016); (Field, 2024) . The result of deviation from linearity proves whether there is a sig- nificant non-linear relationship between met- acognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension, with an F value of 0.853 and a p-value of 0.640 greater than 0.05. This indicates no significant deviation from linearity. So, the relationship between metacognitive awareness reading strategies and reading achievement is linear and signif- icant, with no significant non-linear deviations. This indicates that the linear regression model is suitable for describing the relation- ship between these variables.
Previous studies have also reported this finding. The relationship between metacognitive awareness reading strategies and reading comprehension is linear (Hong-Nam et al., 2014)(Wudneh, 2018)(Kusumawardana & Akhiriyah, 2022), and there is a linear relationship between metacognitive awareness reading strategies and IELTS reading achievement (Fang & Rahman, 2024). EFL learners' metacognitive awareness of reading strategies does not capriciously impact reading comprehension at various levels or situations; instead, the impact is likely to be consistent and linear.
Result of Significance Test on Regression Analysis
Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
Change Statistics
R Square Change
F Change
df1
df2
Sig. F Change
1
.197a
0.039
0.03
5.08252
0.039
4.511
1
112
0.036
a. Predictors: (Constant), Metacognitive Awareness
Then, testing the significance of the cor- relation coefficient was obtained from the summary model table: the correlation coeffi- cient rxy = 0.197 and Fhit = 4.511 > 1.00, with p-value = 0.036 < 0.05, as shown in Table 12 above. There is adequate evidence to con- cede that the relationship between metacognitive awareness reading strategies and read- ing comprehension is statistically significant. The RSquare value is 0.039. This indicates that only 3.9% of the variability in reading com- prehension can be explored by variability in metacognitive awareness reading strategies. Even though it is statistically significant, the percentage of variability explained is rela- tively low.
Hence, these analyses show that while the relationships between metacognitive awareness in reading strategies and reading comprehension are statistically significant, these relationships are weak in a linear mod- el. The metacognitive awareness reading strategies variable explores a small part of the variation in reading comprehension, sug- gesting that other factors also affect students’ reading comprehension. So, metacognitive awareness reading strategies are essential for comprehending the reading activities. These findings are in line with previous studies. (Rosnaeni et al., 2020) noted that metacogni- tive awareness reading strategies correlate with reading comprehension among students at senior high school. Students recognized the significance of reading comprehension and actively employed efficient reading strategies to get favorable outcomes in un- derstanding texts. In addition, (Muhid et al., 2020) confirmed that metacognitive strate- gies have affected students’ reading compre- hension by enhancing their reading perfor- mance and proficiency in maximizing their potential for compelling reading. Frequently using these strategies during reading activi- ties helps students become proficient and strategic readers (Sheikh et al., 2019). Stra- tegic readers can automatically plan, moni- tor, and evaluate their reading (Bagci & Unveren, 2020) .
Other previous studies are also con- sistent with this study's findings. Metacogni- tive awareness helps students become more strategic readers, and implementing these strategies significantly enhances reading comprehension. (Marboot et al., 2020); (Rıanto, 2022) . The finding is also reinforced by the study by(Nahar & Mallik, 2022), which summed up that participants employing metacognitive reading strategies indicated higher levels of both comprehension and proficien- cy than participants not employing metacog- nitive reading strategies. So, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies has shown a positive relationship towards reading com- prehension, enhancing reading performance and effectiveness. The routine employment of these strategies makes learners proficient and strategic readers in planning, monitoring, and evaluating automatically in reading comprehension activities.
As practical pedagogical implications, this study has highlighted the importance of implementing metacognitive awareness read- ing strategies for learning English as a for- eign language (EFL), particularly at the ter- tiary level. For educationalists and curricu- lum developers, the results of this study suggest the necessity of embedding the in- structions on metacognitive awareness read- ing strategies into the teaching and learning process. This could be accomplished through teaching techniques to effectively control and organize the reading process, such as self-reflection, objective setting, and adjust- ment of strategies based on the level of diffi- culty of texts. Thus, learners could become more self-regulated learners, capable of im- plementing such strategies in various reading tasks, and eventually enhance the academic performance of the learners.
The researcher provides the recommendation for future research to explore and deepen in the area of longitudinal design research, in which the aim is to analyze the development of metacognitive awareness across time and the impact on learning outcomes, such as reading comprehension and academic performance generally, and also explore how the other variables (such as those related to psychological or learning methods) such as motivation, anxiety, self-efficacy, and others could be interacting with metacognitive awareness in influencing reading comprehension.
4. Conclusion
This study revealed that reading com- prehension among EFL learners is at a mod- erate level. The result of utilizing MARSI by EFL learners has been a high awareness lev- el, for subscales of MARSI – global reading strategy, problem-solving strategy, and sup- port reading strategy – indicate high aware- ness. EFL learners are highly aware of using problem-solving strategies when facing read- ing difficulties. While problem-solving strat- egies are frequently used, reliance on these strategies may hamper independent reading comprehension in the long term. The de- pendencies could disregard the development of a more in-depth, comprehensive, and ho- listic understanding and the lack of skills in comprehending and analyzing texts, which are essential for long-term academic tasks and higher language acquisition. The GRS, PSS, and SRS subscales strongly correlate with each other and overall metacognitive awareness. The three subscales are essential in shaping and improving readers’ metacog- nitive ability to understand texts. In addition, metacognitive reading strategies have a sig- nificant but weak effect on reading compre- hension, explaining only a small variability. Regularly employing metacognitive strate- gies can improve reading performance and effectiveness, making learners more strategic and skilled in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their reading comprehension. EFL learners with higher MARSI awareness are likelier to have better reading comprehen- sion. This is because learners can regulate the use of reading strategies, recognize prob- lems that arise during the reading process, and apply appropriate strategies. Therefore,
the development of metacognitive awareness should be a focus in language learning since it not only enhances reading comprehension in the short term but also provides learners with the necessary skills to succeed in further language learning.
ReferencesA Study of The Relationship between Metacognitive Reading Strategies among Undergradu-atesInternational Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Scienc-es136Ab AzizA.A.NordinN.A.YatimA.I.A.ShaidinS.SaadN.H.M.RahmatN.H.2023253267253-26710.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i6/17044Clarifying Differences Between Reading Skills and Reading StrategiesThe Reading Teacher615AfflerbachP.PearsonP.D.ParisS.G.2008364373364-37310.1598/RT.61.5.1The Importance of Metacognitive Reading Strategy Aware-ness in Reading ComprehensionEnglish Language Teaching610AhmadiM.R.IsmailH.N.AbdullahM.K.K.2013235244235-244The impact of reading strate-gies on EFL students: A research reviewAl RaqqadY.M.IsmailH.H.AlK.M.201910.22161/ijels.46.65A Re-view of Studies on Cognitive and Meta-cognitive Reading Strategies in Teaching Reading Comprehension for ESL/EFL LearnersEnglish Language Teaching126AliA.M.RazaliA.B.20199411194-11110.5539/elt.v12n6p94An Empirical Study on the Effect of Instruction on Metacognitive Strategies on EFL Reading Comprehen-sion: The Case of Foundation-Level Students in OmanInternational Educa-tion Studies148Al-KiyumiO.SeyabiF.A.HassanA.H.2021304230-42Scrolling, clicking, and reading English: Online reading strategies in a second/foreign languageThe Reading Matrix33AndersonN.J.2003Auditory halluci-nations and the brain’s resting-state net-works: findings and methodological ob-servationsSchizophrenia bulletin425AldersonB.DiederenK.FernyhoughC.FordJ.M.HorgaG.MarguliesD.S.JardriR.2016111011231110-1123Penyusunan Skala PsikologiKencanaAzwarS.2020Investiga-tion the Relationship between Metacog-nitive Awareness of Reading Strategies and Self-Efficacy Perception in Reading Comprehension in Mother-Tongue: Sample of 8th GradersInternational Journal of Educational Methodology61BagciH.UnverenD.2020839883-98The effectiveness of reading strategies on reading compre-hensionInternational Journal of Social Science and Humanity102BanditvilaiC.2020465046-5010.18178/ijssh.2020.10.2.1012Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy Use by English Language Teaching Students in Turkish Context: Sakarya University SampleSakarya University Journal of Education62BeşkardeşlerS.KocamanO.201625410.19126/suje.61107The valid-ity and reliability of the Turkish version of revised metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventoryInternation-al Journal of Assessment Tools in Educa-tion102BörekciR.BörekciC.2023331344331-344The Use of EFL Reading Strategies among High School Students in TaiwanRead-ing Matrix: An International Online Journal152ChenK.T.-C.ChenS.C.-L.2015156166156-166Educational re-search: Planning, conducting, and eval-uating quantitative and qualitative re-searchCreswellJ.W.2012PearsonRegression Analysis and Linear Models: Concepts, Applications, and Implementa-tionDarlingtonR.B.HayesA.F.2016Guilford PublicationsMeta Cogni-tive Strategy Use: Off or On in Online ReadingDarwishI.2017010110.15242/ICEHM.ED0117029Meta-cognitive reading strategies awareness and metacognitive reading strategies use of EFL university students across gen-derStudies in English Language and Education72DelianyZ.CahyonoB.Y.202010.24815/siele.v7i2.17026Meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategies on second language Vietnamese under-graduatesArab World English Journal (AWEJ12DoH.Le Thu PhanH.202110.24093/awej/vol12no1.7An ex-ploration into the impact of augmented reality on EFL learners’ Reading com-prehensionEducation and Information Technologies277EbadiS.AshrafabadiF.2022974597659745-976510.1007/s10639-022-11021-8Developing strategic L2 readersƒ by reading for authentic purposesCurrent Trends in the Devel-opment and Teaching of the four Lan-guage SkillsEdigerA.M.2006303328303-328Mouton de Gruyter10.1515/9783110197778.4.303Reading in a second languageHandbook of research in second language teaching and learningEskeyD.E.2005563579563-579RoutledgeThe Correlation between Metacognitive Strategies and IELTS Reading Achievement among Chinese StudentsOpen Journal of Modern Linguistics143FangM.RahmanM.B.B.A.2024315343315-343An analysis on reading strategies based on metacog-nitive awareness and genderLingua Pedagogia11FauziC.AshadiA.20191161-16Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statisticsFieldA.2024Discovering statistics using SPSS: And sex, drugs and rock “nrollFieldA.P.2009SAGE PublicationsDecoding and Reading Comprehension: A Meta-Analysis to Identify Which Reader and Assessment Characteristics Influence the Strength of the Relationship in EnglishReview of Educational Research841GarcíaJ.R.CainK.20147411174-11110.3102/0034654313499616Read-ing comprehension: The mediating role of metacognitive strategiesGhaithG.El-SanyouraH.2019Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/10125/66748Foreign language read-ing anxiety and metacognitive strategies in undergraduates’ reading comprehen-sionIssues in Educational Research304GhaithG.M.2020131013281310-1328Reading in a second lan-guage: Moving from theory to practiceGrabeW.2009Teaching and researching readingGrabeW.StollerF.L.2019Available from: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315726274/teaching-researching-reading-william-grabe-fredricka-stollerModeling the relationship of metacognitive knowledge, L1 reading ability, L2 language proficiency and L2 readingReading in a Foreign Lan-guage302GuoL.2018209231209-231Researching and teaching reading: Developing pedagogy through critical enquiryHodgesG.C.2015RoutledgeThe Relationships among Re-ported Strategy Use, Metacognitive Awareness, and Reading Achievement of High School StudentsReading Psy-chology358Hong-NamK.LeavellA.G.MaherS.2014762790762-79010.1080/02702711.2013.807900Longitudinal Study of Meta-cognitive Skills and External Represen-tation of Students in the Context of Problem-SolvingIndonesian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE33IjiranaI.MansyurJ.RizalM.AminahS.2021194206194-20610.23917/ijolae.v3i3.13563Combined and Differential Effects of Top-down and Bottom-up Reading Processes on Target Vocabulary Learning and Retention by EFL Learn-ersReading Psychology435–6KakvandR.AliasinS.H.MohammadiE.2022405422405-42210.1080/02702711.2022.2115730Effect of Teaching Met-acognitive Reading Strategies on Read-ing Comprehension of Engineering Stu-dentsSage Open124khellabF.DemirelÖ.Mohammadza-dehB.20222158244022113806910.1177/21582440221138069The Impact of Meta-cognitive Instruction on ESL University Level Students’ Awareness and Use of the Reading StrategiesSAGE Open132KhurramB.A.20232158244023117969510.1177/21582440231179695Integrated Communication skills approach: Reading to learn as a ba-sis for language and content integrationReading to Learn in a Foreign Lan-guageKodaK.2018305430-54RoutledgeEFL university students’ meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategy and its correlation with their reading comprehensionLinguistics and ELT Journal101KusumawardanaZ.R.AkhiriyahS.20221151-15Research design: Quantita-tive, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, and community-based participa-tory research approachesLeavyP.2017Guilford PressA Study of English Reading Strategies Used by Senior Middle School StudentsAsian Social Science610LiF.201010.5539/ass.v6n10p184Effects of MST (metacognitive strategy training) on academic reading comprehension of Chinese EFL studentsUS-China For-eign Language102LianZ.SeephoS.2012933943933-943Practical English Language Teaching (PELT)—Young Learners (Properly BookmarkedLinseC.NunanD.2005McGraw-Hill ESL/ELTNew YorkHow do students integrate multiple texts? An investigation of top-down processingEuropean Journal of Psychology of Edu-cation363ListA.DuH.LeeH.Y.2021599626599-62610.1007/s10212-020-00497-yAwareness of Reading Strategy Use of Indian ESL Students and the Relation-ship with Reading Comprehension AchievementEnglish Language Teach-ing512MadhumathiP.GhoshA.201210.5539/elt.v5n12p131Reading strategies versus reading skills: Two faces of the same coinProcedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences46ManoliP.PapadopoulouM.2012817821817-821Investigating Iranian EFL stu-dents’ metacognitive online reading strategies, critical thinking, and their re-lationship: A mixed-methods studyIs-sues in Language Teaching91MarbootK.RoohaniA.MirzaeiA.2020151182151-18210.22054/ilt.2020.50833.475Metacognitive read-ing strategies, motivation, and reading comprehension performance of Saudi EFL studentsEnglish Language Teach-ing93MeniadoJ.C.2016117129117-129Revising the Metacogni-tive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) and testing for fac-torial invarianceStudies in Second Lan-guage Learning and Teaching82MokhtariK.DimitrovD.M.ReichardC.A.2018-210.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.3Revising the" Metacogni-tive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory"(MARSI) and Testing for Factorial InvarianceStudies in Second Language Learning and Teaching82MokhtariK.DimitrovD.M.ReichardC.A.2018219246219-246As-sessing students’ metacognitive aware-ness of reading strategiesJournal of Educational Psychology942MokhtariK.ReichardC.A.2002249259249-25910.1037/0022-0663.94.2.249Metacognitive Strategies Awareness and Use and Reading Com-prehension of Iranian EFL University Students: A Structural Equation Model-ing ApproachIranian Evolutionary Ed-ucational Psychology Journal43MortazavizadehG.GolshanM.RezaiM.J.2022516535516-535The Effect of Metacognitive Strategies Implementation on Students’ Reading Comprehension AchievementInterna-tional Journal of Instruction132MuhidA.AmaliaE.R.HilaliyahH.BudianaN.WajdiM.B.N.2020847862847-862Available from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1249107The Effect of Metacognitive Strategies Implementation on Students’ Reading Comprehension AchievementInternational Journal of Instruction132MuhidA.AmaliaE.R.HilaliyahH.BudianaN.WajdiM.B.N.2020847862847-86210.29333/iji.2020.13257aMetacognitive Awareness in The Reading Comprehen-sion of Literary Texts: An Experimental Study Based on Metacognitive Reading StrategyEuropean Journal of English Language Teaching71NaharJ.MallikS.202210.46827/ejel.v7i1.4145The Impact of Authentic Materi-als on Reading Comprehension, Motiva-tion, and Anxiety Among Iranian Male EFL LearnersReading & Writing Quar-terly381NamaziandostE.RazmiM.H.Ahmad TilwaniS.Pourhosein GilakjaniA.20221181-1810.1080/10573569.2021.1892001Metacognitive Awareness and Utilization of Reading Strategies among Tertiary Level Students at Private Sector University in Karachi, PakistanPanacea Journal of Linguistics & Litera-ture31NazS.F.KhanZ.KhanI.S.HussainS.Z.2024Available from: https://journals.airsd.org/index.php/pjll/article/view/377Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: An Intro-ductionNunanD.2015RoutledgeAnalysis of the struc-tural validity of the reduced version of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventoryFrontiers in Psy-chology13OndéD.JiménezV.AlvaradoJ.M.GràciaM.2022894327Strategies for learning a second or foreign languageLanguage teaching442OxfordR.L.2011167180167-180Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research: An Explanation and PredictionPedhazurE.J.1997Metacognition and self-regulated comprehensionWhat Re-search Has to Say about Reading In-struction3PressleyM.2002291309291-309The relationship between meta-cognitive reading strategies use and reading comprehension achievement of EFL learnersOpen Journal of Modern Linguistics72RastegarM.KermaniE.M.KhabirM.2017657465-74Exploring correlation be-tween metacognitive online reading strategy use and online reading compre-hension of EFL studentsTurkish Online Journal of Distance Education232RıantoA.2022223235223-23510.17718/tojde.1096448Reading in the Digital Age: An Empirical Examina-tion of Digital Literacy’s Significance for UIN Suska Riau Students Using SEM Path AnalysisIndonesian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE61RitongaP.S.YasthophiA.RambeP.NursiwanW.A.AminS.NurhidayatN.ElhawwaT.2024123136123-13610.23917/ijolae.v6i1.23185Students’ Metacognitive Awareness and Reading Comprehension of Narrative TextsIJEE (Indonesian Journal of Eng-lish Education71RosnaeniR.DjM.Z.NurH.2020748674-86How assessing reading comprehension with multiple-choice questions shapes the construct: A cognitive processing perspectiveLanguage Testing234RuppA.A.FerneT.ChoiH.2006441474441-47410.1191/0265532206lt337oaPossible Effects of Strategy Instruction on L1 and L2 ReadingReading in a Foreign Language141SalataciR.AkyelA.2002Exploring metacogni-tive strategies and hypermedia annota-tions on foreign language readingInter-active Learning Environments255ShangH.-F.2017610623610-62310.1080/10494820.2016.1171787Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies, Reading Practices and Academic Attainments of Universi-ty StudentsJournal of Education and Educational Development61SheikhI.SoomroK.A.HussainN.2019126137126-137Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehensionSnowC.2002Rand CorporationTeachers’ cogni-tion regarding reading instruction in L2 JapaneseThe Reading Matrix: An Inter-national Online Journal202Tabata-SandomM.2020The effectiveness of metacognitive strategy awareness in reading comprehension: The case of Ira-nian university EFL studentsReading142TavakoliH.2014314336314-336Eng-lish reading strategies and their impact on students’ performance in reading comprehensionJournal of Education & Social Sciences52TeevnoR.A.RaisaniR.B.2017152166152-16610.20547/jess0521705205Read-ing in a second language: Process, product and practiceRoutledgeUrquhartA.H.WeirC.J.2014Teaching reading comprehension to students with learning difficultiesVaughnS.BoardmanA.KlingnerJ.K.2024Guilford PublicationsThe SAGE Dictionary of Statistics & Method-ology: A Nontechnical Guide for the So-cial SciencesVogtW.P.JohnsonR.B.2015SAGE PublicationsWiki: A technology for conversational knowledge management and group collaborationCommunica-tions of the association for information systems131WagnerC.200419Metacognitive Strate-gy Use for EFL Readers: Differences in Gender and Reading AbilityTESL-EJ252WallaceM.P.LiV.M.HuangT.C.HeN.C.20212The Effectiveness of The Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) and Preview Question Read Reflect Recite Review (PQ4R) on Reading Comphrehension SkillIndonesian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE11WahyuningsihA.CitraningrumM.2019263626-36Comparison of reading skills be-tween cochlear implantation and normal hearing children in second and third grade elementary in TehranModern Re-habilitation63WeisiF.ShahbodaghiM.R.DadgarH.MoradiA.R.FaghihzadehS.2012Is reading comprehension of ESP program improved by explicit teaching of grammar?WeisiH.2012The effects of students’ perception of the school environment and students’ enjoyment in reading to-wards reading achievement of 4th grades students in Hong KongIndone-sian Journal on Learning and Advanced Education (IJOLAE22WingardA.K.HermawanH.D.DewiV.R.2020687468-74Supporting struggling readers at second-ary school: An intervention of reading strategy instructionReading and Writ-ing348WuL.ValckeM.KeerH.2021217522012175-220110.1007/s11145-021-10144-7The relationship be-tween metacognitive reading strategy awareness and reading comprehension among freshman EFL students, EthiopiaJournal of English Language and Litera-ture (ISSN103WudnehA.M.2018104310501043-1050TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP STRATEGY USE AMONG GOOD AND POOR READERS IN EFL READING COMPREHENSIONEu-ropean Journal of English Language Teaching0, Article 0YangY.TsaiY.-R.HikaruY.201910.46827/ejel.v0i0.2277Effects of reading strategy instruction in English as a second lan-guage on students’ academic reading comprehensionLanguage Teaching Re-search276YappD.GraaffR.Den BerghH.2023145614791456-147910.1177/1362168820985236Metacogni-tive strategy use and academic reading achievement: Insights from a Chinese contextElectronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching101ZhangL.SeephoS.2013