The research was conducted on the southern slopes of Sumbing Volcano, with a case study focus in Wonogiri Village, Magelang, Central Java. The southern slope of Sumbing volcano has a varied topography ranging from gentle to steep slopes (Figure 1a) that affect land use patterns and agricultural practices in this area. The thick volcanic soil, which has a high level of fertility, coupled with sufficient annual rainfall averaging 2,761 mm, strongly supports agricultural land use. The combination of these factors makes land use in this area dominated by food crops, horticultural crops and horticultural agriculture. Cassava is the main dryland commodity in Wonogiri Village, Magelang (Figure 1b). This commodity is very important for the local economy as most of the local people depend on agricultural activities as their main livelihood. Monoculture is a common cropping pattern applied by the community. This monoculture cropping pattern contributes to the high erosion rate in cassava farmland in the study area, which reaches 441 tons/ha/year (Effendy et al., 2019).

The study participants were eight cassava farmers who had previously participated in an LCTs program. All of the participants were male, with ages ranging from 44 to 67 years. In addition to cassava cultivation, several farmers engaged in other forms of livelihood, such as coconut sap farming, construction labor, and traditional woodcutting, reflecting the diversified strategies often employed to sustain household income. Each farmer lived in relatively small households, with family sizes ranging between two and four members. These characteristics highlight the profile of resource-limited, middle-aged to elderly male farmers whose livelihood options are shaped by both agricultural and non-agricultural activities in the study area.

This study employed a qualitative approach, using semi-structured interviews, to explore the fac- tors that hindered farmers' adoption of LCTs. The interviews were conducted face to face with participants. Prior to each interview, informed consent was obtained from all participants. To support data collection, the researchers used questionnaires and field notes to document both ver- bal responses and relevant contextual information. Drawing on previous literature that identifies a variety of potential barriers to LCTs adoption, this study focused specifically on two key areas: farmers' perceived benefits and their socio-economic conditions Table 1. Perceived benefits were categorized into three dimensions: environmental, economic, and emotional. Socio-eco- nomic factors were examined through the lenses of traditional beliefs, human capital, and finan- cial constraints. This framework guided the formulation of interview questions and the interpre- tation of participant responses.

Each interview included six core questions, each comprising two parts. The first part involved a closed ended statement measured using a 5 point Likert scale to assess the participant's level of agreement with specific aspects of the LCTs program. The second part consisted of an openended question asking participants to explain the reasoning behind their Likert scale responses. In this research, the Likert items were not subjected to statistical analysis due to the small sample size. Instead, they served as an entry point for identifying the variation and degree of consistency in opinions among respondents, while the open-ended questions were used to explore in greater depth the reasons underlying their attitudes.

The main analytical focus was placed on the responses to the open-ended questions. Narrative data were analyzed thematically using an inductive approach that allowed themes to emerge organically from the interview transcripts. The analysis process involved repeated reading of the data, open coding of participant responses, and the clustering of similar codes into overarching themes representing barriers to LCTs adoption. To support the interpretation of these themes, selected direct quotes from participants were incorporated into the findings. The analysis was conducted with careful attention to consistency between the Likert scale responses and the accompanying narratives.

As part of a participatory approach to sustainable land management, the researchers have intro- duced LCTs in collaboration with local farming communities. The two LCTs introduced were small reservoirs (referred to locally as rorak), a relay cropping system, and organic fertilizer. The researchers engaged eight local farmers, all of whom expressed their willingness to participate by signing informed consent forms. These farmers were users of communally managed village land and implemented the LCTs directly on their own agricultural plots. In this program, all the finan- cial costs of the LCTs program were covered by researchers, including seeds, fertilizer, and the cost of making a small reservoir.

The small reservoirs, each measuring approximately 1m × 2m × 1m, were designed to intercept and retain both surface runoff and sediment resulting from soil erosion. A total of five reservoirs were constructed with impermeable bases and strategically placed along the existing rill erosion channels to optimize their effectiveness in reducing erosion that can accelerate landslides at the foot of the slope Figure 2. Three reservoirs were installed on the erosional slope (referred to as erosional reservoirs) to reduce runoff, while two reservoirs were installed on the depositional slope (referred to as depositional reservoirs) to trap erosion-derived sediment. Empirical evidence has demonstrated that such reservoirs significantly reduce erosion rates (Islami et al., 2024) and improve water productivity (Senzanje et al., 2008). Furthermore, participating farmers were ad- vised to periodically excavate and reuse the deposited sediment, which is known to contain valu- able mineral and nutrient-rich materials transported by overland flow. This practice not only aims to support soil conservation but also facilitates the recycling of nutrients within the farming system.

In addition to this physical infrastructure, the relay cropping system (referred to locally as tumpang gilir) and organic fertilizer involve planting several types of crops at different time in- tervals Figure 3. Farmers are trained in mycorrhizae. In addition to being environmentally sus- tainable, Bacillus enhances soil fertility, supports plant growth, and protects soils against patho- genic diseases (Wu et al., 2025). Mycorrhiza contributes to improved water and nutrient uptake and, more importantly, strengthens soil structure (Huey et al., 2020). The synergistic application of Bacillus and mycorrhizal fungi is expected to significantly increase crop productivity.

Ground nuts and corn are planted simultaneously at the beginning of the growing season, followed by cassava in the second month after the nuts harvest. Those crops were planted in one garden plot with a predetermined distance. The initial planting of ground nuts and corn aim to increase soil nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, while also protecting the soil from erosion during the early stages of cassava growth. This combination of ground nuts, corn, and cassava within a single plot was expected to enhance agricultural productivity, with yields reaching up to 26.3 tons per hectare for cassava, 2.8 tons per hectare for ground nuts, and 6.9 tons per hectare for corn. Under favourable growing conditions, the LCT program aims to increase farmers’ in- come by as much as 140% compared to monocropping systems.

At the end of the LCTs program, the researchers intentionally allowed the participating farmers to decide independently whether to continue using the introduced conservation techniques or re- vert to their traditional cassava farming practices. This approach was adopted to respect the farm- ers’ autonomy and to observe the long-term voluntary adoption of the interventions. Eight months after the program’s completion, follow-up field observations were conducted to assess the conti- nuity of LCTs application. The results revealed that seven out of eight farmers had returned to traditional farming methods, opting not to maintain the use of the small reservoirs and relay crop- ping systems.

The pattern of Likert scale responses suggests that although many expressed uncertainty and neg- ative views toward the LCTs, all participants (referred to as R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8) acknowledged emotional benefits from participating in the project Figure 4. Several participants (R1, R2, R7, R8) reported a sense of personal growth and fulfilment, describing the program as a valuable opportunity to gain knowledge, adopt new techniques, and stay motivated in their farm- ing practices. As one farmer (R8) expressed, “Even though I’m old, I still feel enthusiastic to learn something new,” reflecting the ongoing motivation sparked by learning. Additionally, the project helped strengthen social bonds, both among local farmers (R3, R4, R5, R6) and with university experts, fostering a sense of collaboration and mutual support. As noted by R6, “This program has strengthened the spirit of cooperation between farmers and university experts.” These emo- tional outcomes suggest that, beyond technical or economic considerations, the program contrib- uted to meaningful psychological and social value.

Nevertheless, despite the emotional benefits experienced during the program, farmers expressed scepticism and negative perceptions regarding several other factors that appeared to hinder the continued adoption of LCTs after the project ended. These included low perceived environmental and economic benefits, strong attachment to traditional farming practices, the perception that LCTs are difficult to implement, and concerns about high implementation costs. Thematic analy- sis revealed how these perceptions function as barriers to long-term adoption. These findings are explored in detail in the following subsections.

This study has explored the underlying reasons behind cassava farmers' reluctance to adopt LCTs in Volcanic hillslopes, prone to landslides. Using thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with eight cassava farmers, the research revealed a complex interplay of environmental, eco-nomic, socio-cultural, and institutional factors.

This study shows that emotional benefits, such as the opportunity to learn, personal growth, and collaboration, did not lead cassava farmers to meaningfully adopt LCTs. These findings are consistent with earlier research by (Meijer et al., 2015), which emphasized that affective factors such as confidence or personal satisfaction do not necessarily lead to behavioral change in technology adoption. Similarly, (Gerli et al., 2022) highlighted that although farmers may demonstrate a high willingness to learn or receive information, this alone is not sufficient to influence the adoption of modern technologies. These findings reinforce the idea that emotional benefits alone are insufficient to drive behavioral change, particularly among smallholder farmers in developing countries, who often face multiple constraints, including limited education and economic resources.

In this case, farmers’ motivation to adopt LCTs also appears to be limited by the lack of visible or immediate environmental benefits. Similar findings have been reported in other developing country contexts. (Tesfahunegn et al., 2021), studying farmers in Ghana, found that erosion was seen as a problem only when it visibly affected the farmers’ own plots, while broader environ- mental impacts were often overlooked. Research in Ethiopia also showed that conservation prac- tices were considered unnecessary unless there was direct and visible harm to the land (Goba et al., 2022). In volcanic hillslope areas, where soils are deep and naturally fertile, erosion is often perceived as a minor issue. Many farmers assume that since crop production continues and land remains cultivable, erosion is not an urgent problem. This perception is further reinforced by a limited understanding of the long-term ecological consequences. Farmers in this study area, for instance, did not associate soil loss with increased downstream sedimentation or the potential to trigger landslides. Another key factor contributing to farmers’ reluctance to adopt LCTs is their low perceived economic benefits. In this study, such perceptions stemmed from the belief that the recommended intercrops, although beneficial for reducing erosion, were not profitable and had low market value. For smallholder cassava farmers with limited financial resources, economic viability is a central consideration. This finding supports previous studies, which consistently em- phasize that perceived profitability is a primary driver of farmers’ decisions to adopt conservation or sustainable farming practices ((McCollum et al., 2022); (Barnes et al., 2019)). Therefore, to im- prove the uptake of LCTs, especially in low-income farming communities, it is important to en- sure that conservation strategies also align with farmers’ economic goals.

The transition from traditional planting methods to modern land conservation techniques also poses a considerable challenge for cassava farmers. One of the primary reasons for this reluctance is their strong familiarity with conventional practices, which are perceived as more reliable and less likely to result in crop failure. Within this context, the introduction of various intercrop spe-cies alongside cassava is often viewed as increasing the likelihood of complications and harvest failure. This high level of risk aversion has been frequently identified in the literature as a signif-icant barrier to the adoption of land conservation technologies (Jack et al., 2022)(Bakker et al., 2021). In addition, implementing such techniques, including intercropping and using sedimented soil from small reservoirs, requires greater physical effort and more frequent field visits. Conse-quently, farmers may lose the opportunity to engage in secondary income-generating activities outside farming, which they previously relied on to supplement household income. Adjustments in daily work routines like this may also serve as a barrier to the implementation of land conser-vation technologies by farmers (Bonke & Musshoff, 2020).

Farmers often perceive LCTs as difficult to implement without external assistance, particularly during the early stages of adoption. This perception stems from limited technical knowledge, unfamiliarity with the required practices, and a lack of confidence in managing potential risks. As a result, the presence of experts or extension agents is viewed as critical to supporting the initial implementation process. Previous studies have shown that access to expert advice and ongoing support can significantly enhance farmers' willingness to adopt new practices, as it reduces uncertainty and builds trust in the effectiveness of the technology (Verburg et al., 2022). Farmers not only expect experts to offer practical solutions when challenges arise but also rely on them for motivational support when they experience setbacks or doubt their ability to continue. In addition to technical challenges, farmers' perceptions of high implementation costs represent a significant barrier to the long-term sustainability of LCTs adoption. Many farmers believe that adopting LCTs requires substantial initial investment, including labor, equipment, and materials, which they may not be able to afford without external support. This perception of high cost often creates a sense of dependency on government programs, non-governmental organizations, or academic institutions for financial assistance. Even studies conducted in developed agricultural systems have also identified high start-up costs as a deterrent to the adoption of conservation practices (Gütschow et al., 2021)(Bechini et al., 2020). Among smallholder cassava farmers, who typically operate with limited financial resources, the absence of subsidies or access to capital further dis-courages adoption.

The findings of this study underline that the adoption of LCTs cannot be sustained through iso- lated or short-term interventions. Instead, it requires long-term, economically viable, and institu- tional supports that simultaneously address technical, social, and financial dimensions. Several key implications for practice and policy can be drawn.

First, long-term demonstration projects are crucial because the ecological, social, and financial benefits of LCTs often take considerable time to materialize. Short project cycles rarely capture gradual improvements in soil stability, crop productivity, and erosion control, nor do they allow sufficient time to build trust and shift entrenched farming behaviors. Evidence from a multi-sea- son study shows that conservation agriculture systems consistently outperform conventional methods only after several years, highlighting the necessity of sustained implementation and men- toring (Thierfelder et al., 2015). Long-term projects, therefore, provide a more reliable foundation for embedding conservation into everyday farming practices.

Second, the role of community-based monitoring is critical. Farmers’ decisions are shaped more by immediate, observable outcomes than by distant or abstract risks. When farmers are actively engaged in observing and documenting the performance of LCTs, such as reductions in erosion or improvements in productivity, they develop stronger ownership and trust in conservation prac- tices. This participatory approach, similar to citizen science, has been shown to strengthen both data quality and community engagement in agricultural landscapes ((Noordwijk et al., 2021); (Etten et al., 2019)). In this way, community-based monitoring not only empowers farmers but also ensures that conservation interventions are perceived as directly relevant and beneficial.

Third, it is essential to frame LCTs within the concept of productive conservation, which empha-sizes that conservation should not be seen as a cost but as a strategy that enhances livelihoods (Sartohadi et al., 2024)(Purwaningsih et al., 2020). For instance, integrating highvalue crops into intercropping systems can simultaneously protect soil and generate additional income, thereby strengthening farmers' motivation to adopt LCTs (Bechini et al., 2020). Metaanalytic evidence further confirms that agricultural diversification contributes not only to ecological sustainability but also to substantial gains in profitability and resilience over the long term (Tamburini et al., 2020). Positioning LCTs as both ecologically and economically beneficial can therefore be an effective strategy to increase their attractiveness to smallholder farmers.

Fourth, strengthening farmers’ economic capacity is fundamental to overcoming adoption barri- ers. The high upfront costs of LCTs implementation often discourage resource-poor farmers from investing in conservation. Value-chain interventions, such as cassava processing into modified cassava flour or other higher-value products, provide pathways for increasing household income and reducing dependency on volatile raw commodity markets. Empirical studies show that cas- sava farmers engaged in value addition experience significantly higher incomes and greater fi- nancial stability compared to those without value addition ((Bosompem et al., 2024); (Nwankwo & Chiekezie, 2024)). By improving farmers’ economic resilience and linking them with stable market opportunities, policy and academic actors may enhance their willingness and ability to invest in LCTs.

Finally, the applicability of land conservation technologies depends on sustained institutional sup-port. Government involvement is crucial in developing village-level environmental regulations that allow the strategic use of village funds to finance farmers' investments in LCTs. Such regu-latory and financial mechanisms would complement the technical and financial assistance pro-vided by academic institutions, ensuring that conservation efforts remain both sustainable and locally grounded. Previous studies on agricultural extension have shown that consistent technical guidance and institutional facilitation in accessing credit significantly enhance the adoption of soil and water conservation technologies (Belayneh, 2023)(Girma, 2022). This dual role of tech-nical mentorship and financial brokerage is indispensable for overcoming barriers to the long-term sustainability of LCTs.

Taken together, these five implications emphasize that effective practice and policy must extend beyond short-term, top-down interventions. Instead, they should promote long-term demonstration projects, participatory monitoring, productive conservation, economic empowerment, and continuous institutional support. Only through such integrative strategies can the widespread and sustained adoption of LCTs be achieved, ensuring that conservation practices contribute simulta-neously to environmental sustainability and the improvement of smallholder farmer livelihoods. Importantly, these approaches also contribute to global development agendas by advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): reducing poverty (SDG 1), promoting sustainable agri-culture and food security (SDG 2), strengthening resilience to climate risks (SDG 13), and con-serving terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15).