Urban green spaces (UGS) have become an important part of urban life in recent years, especially considering the accelerating pace of urbanisation and associated environmental and health risks (Huang et al., 2022). UGS, such as parks, forests and greenways, are vital parts of urban ecosystems because they provide important ecological employment. They enhance air quality, alleviate the urban heat island effect and promote biodiversity conservation and climate resilience (Lee et al., 2023). In parallel, UGS have been acknowledged for their social and mental health benefits, serving as spaces for recreation, stress recovery and enhanced mental well-being while reinforcing social activities and collective cohesion ((Godoi et al., 2025); (Gong et al., 2023); (Zhu et al., 2022)).

In this larger context, user loyalty has become a key idea for determining how individuals build long-term relationships with green areas. Loyalty is typically demonstrated through individuals’ emotional attachment to a location and their continuous visitation behaviour (Kaklauskas et al., 2021). Loyalty, originally derived from marketing and tourism studies ((Quan et al., 2025); (Zhou et al., 2026)), has recently been proposed as relevant to the sustainable utilisation and management of UGS ((Alreahi et al., 2023); (Sousa-Silva et al., 2024)). Loyal users are likely to visit frequently, provide word-of-mouth endorsement and support green area interventions geared towards conserving and managing green spaces, thus contributing to the ecological and social utility of these spaces ((Li et al., 2022); (Li & Liu, 2025)). Research on leisure has shown that leisure involvement and on-site experience affect satisfaction and post-visit behaviour, providing a useful perspective for understanding the formation of loyalty in UGS (Rahmafitria & Kaswanto, 2024).

The literature on UGS has grown significantly in recent decades, encompassing topics ranging from physiological improvements linked with green spaces, environmental quality perceptions, spatial variables and activity profiles to their broader positive impacts on urban well-being (e.g. (Edeigba et al., 2024); (Nursyamsiah & Setiawan, 2023); (Tang et al., 2021)). At the same time, more researchers have started using bibliometric approaches to trace developments in UGS-related fields and to identify emerging themes and influential studies (Singh et al., 2023). These methods provide a useful foundation for mapping the structure of research on loyalty within UGS—a topic that lacks consolidated review.

Despite growing interest in this topic, there are no reviews that specifically address the application of loyalty in UGS research. The lack of systematic reviews and in-depth bibliometric analyses of existing research results hinders a comprehensive understanding of progress, research frontiers and theoretical evolution in the field. In addition, most studies rely on a single theoretical perspective or approach. For example, some studies have employed psychological theories to examine loyalty-related behaviours (Wu et al., 2023), while others have used empirical designs that do not fully utilise theory as a guide. Therefore, an integrated approach that combines different theoretical perspectives—such as environmental psychology, urban planning theory and marketing theory—with different methodologies—such as qualitative research, quantitative analysis and bibliometrics techniques—can provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between UGS and loyalty. Such an approach can also help identify deeper mechanisms and influencing factors that can promote theoretical development and support the sustainable design and management of UGS systems.

Therefore, this study attempts to address the following overarching research questions:

RQ1: What are the overall trends in the study of loyalty in UGS?

RQ2: What advancements have occurred in the literature on loyalty in UGS regarding theories, research context, characteristics and methods?

RQ3: What are the future directions for research on loyalty in the context of UGS?

To answer these research questions, this review applies the theory–context–characteristics–methods (TCCM) framework ((Paul & Benito, 2018); (Paul & Rosado-Serrano, 2019)).

Therefore, this study aims to comprehensively and systematically explain the application and research context of loyalty in UGS. By using bibliometric techniques and the TCCM framework to analyse peer-reviewed articles indexed in the Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus databases, this paper reveals the knowledge structure of the field and highlights key research gaps. Specifically, VOSviewer was used to conduct keyword co-occurrence analysis and topic clustering, and Scimago Graphica was used to visualise the publication patterns and international research networks. Through comprehensive content evaluation, this study integrates key theoretical foundations, research backgrounds, variable relationships and methodological systems. The paper provides an in-depth analysis of the historical evolution and current status of UGS loyalty research and reveals emerging trends and future research avenues. By connecting environmental psychology, urban studies and marketing, this study enriches the interdisciplinary literature and provides practical insights for the sustainable development and management of UGS.

In the remainder of the paper, Section 2 positions the study by reviewing the existing literature on loyalty in the fields of landscape, tourism, environment and related research; further, this section responds to unresolved issues in previous studies. Section 3 describes the methodological procedures adopted in this review. Section 4 outlines the overall situation of loyalty research in the field of UGS and discusses the research findings based on bibliometric analysis. Section 5 conducts an in-depth analysis of the existing theories, backgrounds, characteristics and methods based on the TCCM framework. Section 6 discusses the findings, and Section 7 presents the research conclusions.

All the literature collected for this study was systematically analysed and classified by publication year. As of December 2025, all identified literature related to loyalty in the context of UGS research was published after 2010. Figure 3 shows that the number of publications remained low and fluctuated between 2010 and 2019, with only 1–3 papers published each year. After 2022, there was a significant increase. In particular, 6 papers were published in 2022 and 2023, marking the peak of research in this field. Although there was a slight decline in 2024, it remained at a very high level in 2025. In addition, two articles for 2026 have been available online as early-access publications. This trend indicates that attention to this topic has continued to increase in recent years, and the relevant research results have been continuously enriched.

Table 2 lists the distribution of publication categories included in the study. Environmental Studies accounted for 36.84% of the total, followed by Hospitality Leisure Sport Tourism at 31.85%, Forestry (18.42%), Urban Studies (15.79%), Geography (13.16%) and Management (10.53%). Other related categories include Ecology, Psychology Multidisciplinary and Environmental Science, each accounting for about 7.89% of the total number of papers. In addition, the fields of Architecture, Engineering, Plant Sciences and Green Technology accounted for a relatively small proportion, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of loyalty research.

Table 3 presents the top 5 publishers and their respective journals in the field. These prominent publi.shers published 3 papers or more than 84% of the overall releases. Elsevier emerges as the preeminent entity, publishing 14 publications in several specialised journals, including the Journal of Environmental Psychology, Landscape and Urban Planning and Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. This publisher is accountable for over 36% of the research output in this field. MDPI is a notable contributor, producing 10 articles (26.32%), primarily via its journals Forests and the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Following these two giants, Emerald Group Publishing and Taylor & Francis each account for a small but notable share (6% each), primarily through niche journals such as Management of Environmental Quality and Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. Furthermore, the Cognizant Communication Corporation publisher published 2 articles via Tourism Analysis.

Figure 4 illustrates the publication countries. A total of 16 countries were represented by scholars undertaking research on loyalty in UGS. China leads with 16 documents, representing nearly 50% of the total publications. The United States ranks second, contributing 10 documents, while South Korea follows with 5 documents. These three nations collectively account for the preponderance of academic contributions in this domain. China has published the most research on this subject, showcasing its robust academic influence and sustained interest in urban environmental studies. However, the United States has the most extensive academic co-occurrence link with other nations.

Figure 5 illustrates the co-occurrence network of keywords related to the research topic. Researchers established the minimum frequency of keyword occurrences at two; 51 keywords out of 274 meet the requirement. There are four clusters associated with the keywords co-occurrence network. Cluster 1 with the colour red specifies 14 nodes, with an emphasis on destination image and place attachment in destination loyalty as the study topic. Destination image is the major keyword (Total lines strength = 80, Occurrences = 10), followed by place attachment (Total lines strength = 69, Occurrences = 9). Cluster 2, represented by the colour green, comprises 14 nodes, focusing on satisfaction, behavioural intention and the perceived value in UGS. The most important term is satisfaction (Total lines count = 120, Occurrences = 18), followed by behavioural intention (Total line length = 39, Occurrences = 5) and perceived value. The study subject centred on the perceptions of green space, and the structural equation modelling (SEM) method is represented by 13 nodes in Cluster 3, shown by the colour blue. The most important term is SEM (Total lines strength = 77, Occurrences = 10). The research subject centred on loyalty and motivation is identified by 10 nodes in Cluster 4, which is shown in yellow colour. The main term is motivation (Total lines strength = 85, Occurrences = 10), followed by loyalty (Total lines strength = 76, Occurrences = 11) and quality (Total lines strength = 63, Occurrences = 10).

Figure 6 shows the keyword co-occurrence overlay. After 2022, the hot keywords are coloured purple. In these hot keywords, the noteworthy keywords include moderation role, gender, identity, revisit intention, wellness-to-pay, services, travellers, antecedents, environmental attitudes, pro-environmental behaviour and greenway, which indicates the trend of the moderating role of gender, age and origin in research on UGS loyalty as well as environmental attitude and behaviour.

Figure 7 shows the keyword cloud map, which visualises the main themes or topics (including keywords) frequently used in the dataset (McNaught & Lam, 2010). It offers a method to swiftly identify the predominant themes or subjects (including keywords) and their interrelations (Mowforth et al., 2023). With the keyword cloud map, eight keywords—such as satisfaction, destination image, place attachment, loyalty, destination loyalty, SEM, motivation and green space—are highlighted, in addition to perception, perceived value, quality and visitors.

In recent years, research on UGS loyalty has developed rapidly, especially experiencing explosive growth after 2022 (Zhang et al., 2023). However, there remains significant differences in conceptual frameworks and research methods within this field. Although loyalty is typically empirically measured through indicators such as revisit intention, recommendation intention or pro-environmental behaviour ((Cossío-Silva et al., 2019); (Wei & Zhang, 2023)), its conceptual boundaries often overlap with related constructs such as satisfaction and place attachment ((Chen & Phou, 2013); (Yuksel et al., 2010)). This conceptual proximity has generated empirical richness and theoretical ambiguity, as many studies do not clearly distinguish between attitudinal and behavioural loyalty or explicitly articulate their theoretical grounding.

From a theoretical perspective, TCCM analysis reveals the diversity of theoretical frameworks but lacks integration. Although frameworks such as the theory of planned behaviour and attachment theory appear frequently, a significant amount of research still relies on single-theory applications or implicit assumptions ((Huang et al., 2021); (Plunkett et al., 2019)). Meanwhile, studies adapting attention restoration, prospect–refuge and means–end theories have not fully explained how environmental perception translates into sustained engagement. The formation of loyalty in UGS seems to stem from the interaction of cognitive evaluations (such as perceived value, environmental quality), emotional responses (such as attachment, satisfaction) and experiential processes (such as restorative experiences and memories; (Li et al., 2023); (Rahmafitria & Kaswanto, 2024); (Wu et al., 2023)). Future theoretical development needs to construct integrated models that connect environmental psychology with behavioural decision-making mechanisms, thereby providing a more coherent explanation for the long-term relationship between humans and the environment.

From a geographical distribution perspective, empirical research is mainly concentrated in China, the United States and South Korea, with studies in other regions still being insufficient (Zhang et al., 2023). Most research focuses on the general tourist population, with limited attention given to specific social groups such as adolescents, older residents, immigrants or marginalised communities. Given that loyalty is shaped by cultural norms, accessibility and social space conditions, expanding cross-cultural and cross-type comparative studies is crucial for enhancing the external validity and inclusiveness of the research.

From a methodological perspective, the dominance of cross-sectional survey design and SEM reflects researchers’ strong preference for examining complex mediation and moderation structures (Yang et al., 2022). Although these methods can clarify structural relationships, they may not fully capture the dynamic evolution of loyalty. Longitudinal design, experimental methods, behavioural tracking and digital means can better reveal the mechanisms of loyalty development over time and responses to environmental interventions (Ma et al., 2024). The diversification of methodologies also helps uncover the subjective meanings underlying statistical associations.

From a governance perspective, loyalty should not merely be regarded as a marketing concept but should be considered a strategic dimension of sustainable urban management. Continuous improvements in environmental quality, accessibility and experiential attributes can effectively enhance user satisfaction and emotional attachment (Zhang et al., 2023)), thereby promoting repeat visits and positive word-of-mouth endorsement (Nursyamsiah & Setiawan, 2023). Moreover, users with emotional attachment are more likely to support conservation initiatives and participate in community environmental actions (Wei & Zhang, 2023), contributing to the construction of a green space system with social resilience and ecological sustainability.

Overall, although the research on UGS loyalty has expanded rapidly, it is still in a transitional period from exploratory growth to theoretical integration. To deepen the comprehensive understanding of sustained engagement with urban green environments, it is essential to enhance conceptual clarity, broaden the scope of contextual representation and enrich methodological pathways. Table 7 summarises the key directions for future research based on the TCCM framework ((Paul & Benito, 2018); (Paul & Rosado-Serrano, 2019)).

This review systematically synthesises UGS loyalty research using bibliometric and TCCM approaches. By analysing 38 peer-reviewed articles published between 2010 and 2025, it maps the intellectual structure of the field and identifies major themes, theoretical foundations and methodological trends. The findings reveal inconsistencies in theoretical progress, the concentration of research space and the dominance of affective and cognitive variables, including place interaction, satisfaction and perceived value.

This paper explores the core constructs common in loyalty models and suggests integrating psychological, environmental and behavioural frameworks. The study provides practical solutions for urban planners, designers and policymakers to enhance the public’s continued participation in UGS systems: improving environmental quality, accessibility and experiential attributes can enhance satisfaction and attachment, while loyalty-oriented design can promote conservation behaviour and sustainable park management. Nevertheless, this review is limited by language barriers and database selection. Future studies should integrate a wider range of datasets, adopt diverse methodologies and explore in depth the relevant social, cultural and ecological factors in specific contexts. Overall, this review lays the foundation for advancing interdisciplinary research on UGS system loyalty and provides important guidance for academic exploration and evidence-based urban planning.

The authors would like to thank all parties who contributed to this re-search and the completion of this manuscript, including supervisors, data providers, and supporting institutions. Their guidance, assis-tance, and support are sincerely appreciated.

Conceptualization: Huang, M., Aziz, N. F., Liu, J., & Shen, H.; method-ology: Huang, M., Aziz, N. F. & Shen, H.; investigation: Huang, M. & Shen, H.; writing—original draft preparation: Huang, M., Aziz, N. F., Liu, J., & Shen, H. writing—review and editing: Huang, M., Aziz, N. F., Liu, J., & Shen, H.; visualization: Huang, M., Liu, J., & Shen, H.. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Data is available upon Request.

This research received no external funding.