In response to these challenges, it is important to situate this study within the broader landscape of Islamic environmental scholarship, academic discourse on water resource governance within an Islamic perspective has thus far tended to polarize into two dominant approaches: the legal-formal (fiqh) approach and the community compliance approach.

In the first approach, studies are largely dominated by juridical-normative analysis. For example, [33] develop a Maqashid al-Shariah–based framework for water governance, while Pranotoputera et al. (2025) compare civil law and Islamic law in riverbank regulation. While valid in normative terms, these studies reveal a critical gap: they position religion merely as a static regulatory instrument rather than a dynamic critique of power. Recent international scholarship has increasingly explored the intersection of religious ethics and water sustainability. For instance, [19] in Discover Sustainability propose the "CirculIslamicus" model, using the Islamicity Index to measure water circularity performance across Muslim-majority countries[19] Similarly, from a comparative ecotheological perspective, [20] in Religions emphasizes the role of "eco-ethos" in addressing the climate-driven water crisis [20]. However, while these studies focus on macro-level indices or broad theological ontologies, this research fills a critical gap by providing a granular "Ecotheological Audit" of micro-level policy implementation and structural integrity in urban river management, specifically in the context of the political-economy of "structural fasad" in Bekasi.

In the second approach, research often focuses on evaluating the behavior of civil society. [30], through their study of “Fikih Sungai” in Banjarmasin, highlight low public participation and littering behavior as primary causes of river degradation. A bias in this approach is the tendency to place ecological responsibility solely on the community, while the role of policy stakeholders in supervision is often absent from theological analysis. To address this gap, the present study employs a descriptive qualitative field research method combined with a thematic Qur’anic exegesis (tafsir maudhu‘i) approach within an ecotheological framework. This methodological choice offers significant novelty compared to previous studies:

Thus, this research positions Qur’anic exegesis not merely as a static sacred text, but as a dynamic evaluative instrument for responding to the crisis of urban river management.

Islamic ecotheology is a branch of theology that explores the relationship between God, humans, and the universe based on the primary sources of Islamic teaching. Its main principle is Tawhid [27], which affirms the unity of creation and the dependence of all beings on Allah. Within this framework, environmental destruction is understood as an action that disrupts the order of Allah’s signs as manifested in nature [16]. This perspective aligns with [28], who argue that concepts like amanah and umma should be understood as “core Islamic ecospiritual principles that offer a decolonial epistemology grounded in relational ethics, reciprocal responsibility, and more-than-human kinship”[28] These principles provide the ethical foundation upon which broader Qur’anic prophetic values can be understood and reapplied in contemporary environmental contexts within this Qur’anic ethical framework, several interconnected principles further clarify the moral structure of human-nature relations [29]. In addition, the concept of mizan (balance) requires humans to manage natural resources wisely to ensure their sustainability for future generations [16].

Humans are positioned as khalifah fi al-ardh (God’s representatives on earth) bearing the amanah to prosper the earth, not to destroy it [30]. This implies that humans are endowed with the power to manage natural assets productively, ensuring that nature's bounty is developed beneficially rather than exploited destructively [21]. As [15] emphasizes, “humans, as khalifah, have an obligation to maintain this balance, not to destroy it through actions such as excessive exploitation, environmental pollution, or injustice towards nature”[15]. This amanah includes the moral responsibility to maintain cleanliness, uphold honesty in land use, and carry out social oversight to preserve ecosystems.[16] Violations of this amanah, whether by individuals through land-related misconduct or by the government through tolerating illegal constructions, can be viewed as a form of spiritual and ethical failure.

In the Qur’an, the term zulm has a broad range of meanings, from the darkness of the heart to acts of oppression against fellow beings [18],[31]. Etymologically, zulm conveys the meanings of jara wa jawaza al-hadd (to act unjustly and exceed limits) as well as wada’a al-shay fi ghairi mawdi’ih (placing something in the wrong place)[31]. Constructing buildings on riverbanks or riparian zones represents a concrete example of placing something in an improper location, as these areas are legally public property for irrigation purposes [10].

In addition, baghyun is used to describe actions that violate the rights of others, show hostility, and deviate from legal norms [31]. Community involvement in the illegal trade of state-owned land along riverbanks or riparian zones constitute a form of baghyun because they deprive other citizens of their right to a safe environment free from flooding [32]. This ecological injustice leads in zulumat (darkness and hardship) for the wider community. To counter this injustice, “the principles of maslahah (public interest) and ‘adl (justice) emphasize that governments and corporations bear the responsibility of preventing water crises and ensuring sustainability”[33] in this sense, according to the Qur'an, protecting the environment is a religious duty in addition to a social obligation, and is not considered an optional matter [34].

This practice is often driven by uncontrolled urbanization and the scarcity of affordable residential land. Low-income communities often end up building in prohibited areas, while well-capitalized individuals exploit legal loopholes to establish strategic commercial buildings along the riverbanks [18]. From the Qur’anic perspective, this action can be interpreted as a form of baghyun (violation of rights) affecting both the state and the public, as the land functionally belongs to the community to ensure the safety of urban waterways.

Furthermore, the existence of permanent commercial buildings in the riparian zone is not only a violation of positive law—specifically Law No. 26 of 2007 on Spatial Planning—but also a profound theological failure [35]. In Islamic governance, compliance with state regulations intended for public safety (maslahah) is part of the covenant (ahd) between the government (ulil amri) and the people [36]. When the government neglects enforcement and allows these illegal structures to proliferate for economic gain, they are committing structural treason (khianat) against the public trust (Amanah) [37]. This creates a form of 'structural fasad' where policy failure directly contributes to environmental destruction.

Littering behavior is a significant environmental challenge in Bekasi Regency. Various research findings indicate that the low level of public awareness and understanding of the impacts of waste is the main factor driving this behavior [38]. Most residents living along riverbanks or designated river zones still use rivers as final disposal sites for household waste, domestic effluents, and even excrement [39]. The reason often cited is convenience, driven by the assumption that the waste will be carried away by the current, without considering the accumulation of waste downstream, which has the potential to block the drainage system [18]. Such behavior contradicts the fact that the Qur'an emphasizes the importance of the principle of moderation in consumption, sustainable resource management, preparedness for environmental challenges, and greening [15].

This is reinforced by interview findings with a resident living along the riverbank, who stated that disposing of waste into the river has been a long-standing habit due to the lack of access to waste collection services reaching their settlement. The informant explained, “We are confused about where else to throw our trash; usually when heavy rain comes, the garbage is immediately washed away so it does not pile up here.” Field observations also indicated the absence of adequate temporary waste disposal facilities (TPS) in the surrounding area.

This low environmental awareness is not only observed among communities with lower educational attainment, but also appears across various social strata [40]. This condition indicates that cognitive knowledge does not necessarily transform into ecological piety. Direct disposal of waste into rivers impacts water quality, increases mortality of aquatic organism, and causes blockages in water flow, which can ultimately can trigger flooding when rainfall increases [1]. In 2025, authorities in the Cikarang area reportedly removed tens of tons of waste from rivers to alleviate floodwaters that inundated residential areas [41].

Local governments play a crucial role as enforcers of spatial planning laws and as guardians of policy implementation among the public. However, the 2025 flooding in Bekasi Regency revealed significant weaknesses in governmental supervision. The lack of consistent oversight of illegal development from the outset allowed permanent structures to proliferate along riverbanks, making subsequent enforcement more difficult and triggering social conflicts [42].

Criticism of the government often concerns selective enforcement practices, in which small residential buildings are sanctioned while large commercial structures that violate boundaries frequently escape oversight [43].

Based on direct field observations, the researcher identified unequal treatment between residents’ semi-permanent structures and large commercial buildings within the same zone. An interview with a neighborhood head (RT leader) revealed that public outreach regarding riverbank boundary regulations rarely reaches the grassroots level. He noted, “Government officials usually come only after major flooding occurs or during enforcement operations, but routine guidance or community engagement is almost nonexistent”.

Meanwhile, weak coordination among agencies, such as Satpol PP, the Spatial Planning Office, and the Land Agency, often reduces riverbank regulations to mere rules on paper [44], without effective implementation in the field. This weakness in supervision and enforcement reflects a lack of integrity and professionalism among ulil amri, who are responsible for ensuring protection and justice for all citizens [45]. Field data show that community perceptions align with the researcher’s analysis regarding a crisis of amanah (trust and responsibility) in environmental oversight. An affected resident expressed disappointment over the government’s tolerance of illegal structures along the riverbanks, combined with the community’s harmful practice of disposing waste into the river, as the main causes of the flooding they experienced [46]. This demonstrates that the disaster constitutes a clear manifestation of fasad (destructive disorder) arising from the neglect of ecological responsibility by both authorities and the community.

In QS. Ar-Rum: 41, Allah ta’ala says:

ظَهَرَ الْفَسَادُ فِى الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ بِمَا كَسَبَتْ اَيْدِى النَّاسِ لِيُذِيْقَهُمْ بَعْضَ الَّذِيْ عَمِلُوْا لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْجِعُوْنَ ۝٤١

The meaning: “Corruption has appeared on land and sea as a result of what the hands of people have earned. (Through this) Allah makes them taste some of the consequences of their deeds so that they may return (to the right path)”[47],[48].

Imam Ibn Kathir, in his tafsir, explains that “fasad” (corruption) in this verse refers to polytheism and immorality, which lead to a reduction in blessings from the heavens and the earth, such as drought, famine, and the loss of security [48]. Manan Cheema and Rahman (2025) expand this definition to the modern context, stating that “Pollution (plastic waste, oil spills, toxic emissions), deforestation, habitat destruction, overconsumption, disrupting of natural balance (mizan) are forms of fasad (destructive activities)”[3].

This theoretical postulate is confirmed by empirical data from the field. Throughout 2025, Cikarang experienced three extreme flood cycles with water levels reaching up to two meters. While hidrologically this was triggered by high rainfall, in an ecotheological perspective, this phenomenon represents a fundamental disruption of Mizan (cosmic balance). The water, which naturally requires space to flow (haqq al-ma), has been displaced by concrete structures, forcing it to reclaim its space through disastrous overflow. This catastrophe is not merely a natural disaster, but a theological signal that the limit (qadar) set by nature has been violated by human greed

In the context of urban rivers, particularly in Bekasi, such immorality can be recontextualized as acts of “ecological misconduct.” Construction along riverbanks and the improper disposal of waste constitute social sins because they harm many people. Allah allows humans to experience the impact of floods as a form of dzauq (tasting the consequences) so that they may become aware and repent (yarji’un)[14]. The reactualization of the ethical message of this verse calls for “ecological repentance”, namely the complete cessation of all forms of riverbank occupation and water pollution as an expression of a servant’s obedience to the Creator [49].

In QS. Al-A’raf: 56 Allah ta’ala says:

وَلَا تُفْسِدُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ بَعْدَ اِصْلَاحِهَا وَادْعُوْهُ خَوْفًا وَّطَمَعًاۗ اِنَّ رَحْمَتَ اللّٰهِ قَرِيْبٌ مِّنَ الْمُحْسِنِيْنَ ۝٥٦

The meaning: “Do not cause corruption on the earth after it has been properly ordered. Pray to Him with fear and hope. Indeed, Allah’s mercy is very near to those who do good” [50].

Imam Ibn Kathir, in his tafsir, explains that Allah forbids all forms of corruption after improvement, whether through the Sharia of the prophets or through the harmonious order of nature. Riverbank areas, which are naturally designated as water protection zones, are part of the earth’s order that has been “properly arranged”. This order reflects the idea that “God created the world in balance (mizan), including habitats, ecosystems and all forms of life. However, this balance can be disrupted by humans due to their capacity to cause fasad (corruption) on earth[51].

Constructing shophouses and permanent buildings in riverbank or protection zones disturb the balance (mizan) and contradicts the divine mercy embedded in the earth’s natural system [16]. The reactualization of this ethical principle teaches that preserving riverbank boundaries is not merely a matter of complying with state law, but also of fulfilling a religious duty to maintain the harmony of God’s creation for the safety and well-being of all.

After discussing the prohibition of fasad and the principle of mizan in QS. Ar-Rum: 41 and QS. Al-A’raf: 56, the Qur’an also emphasizes the importance of safeguarding trust (amanah) and fulfilling it properly.

In QS. An-Nisa: 58 Allah ta’ala says:

اِنَّ اللّٰهَ يَأْمُرُكُمْ اَنْ تُؤَدُّوا الْاَمٰنٰتِ اِلٰٓى اَهْلِهَاۙ وَاِذَا حَكَمْتُمْ بَيْنَ النَّاسِ اَنْ تَحْكُمُوْا بِالْعَدْلِۗ اِنَّ اللّٰهَ نِعِمَّا يَعِظُكُمْ بِهٖۗ اِنَّ اللّٰهَ كَانَ سَمِيْعًا ۢ بَصِيْرًا ۝٥٨

The meaning: “Indeed, Allah commands you to deliver trusts (amanah) to their rightful owners. When you judge between people, judge with justice. Indeed, Allah instructs you in the best way. Indeed, Allah is All Hearing, All Seeing.”

In this verse, Allah ta’ala obliges every holder of authority to fulfill their responsibilities with justice and professionalism. In the governance of rivers, the Bekasi Regency government acts as the trustee (amanah) of state land and the safety of its people. The failure to supervise illegal constructions and inconsistencies in law enforcement can be viewed as a breach of the trust entrusted to them (both as a divine mandate and as a public responsibility) [52].

The reactualization of the ethics of amanah requires the government to:

On the other hand, the community also bears amanah at the individual, level by refraining from misconduct and maintaining environmental cleanliness as part of the manifestation of faith (an-nadhafatu min al-iman) this is because environmental protection, which is a major goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), was already embedded in Islam and practiced by the Prophet Muhammad centuries ago[53].

Addressing the river crisis requires synergy between legal approaches and community empowerment grounded in Islamic spiritual values. A Participatory Action Research (PAR) approach can be implemented by involving scholars and religious leaders as agents of change to foster ecological awareness within the community [54]. Interviews with local community organizers indicated that residents are willing to change their behavior, provided that adequate facilities are made available [55]. The researcher observed that religiously grounded approaches are more readily accepted by the community than mere threats of fines. Observations of regular neighborhood religious gatherings further suggest that ecotheological values hold strong potential to be integrated into local da'wah materials.

Islamic ecotheology based community empowerment programs can include:

Providing the community with an understanding that disposing of waste into rivers constitutes a violation of their amanah as caliphs on earth and has the potential to cause harm (mudarat) to other living beings [27].

Encouraging a shift in community’s mindset from the habit of dumping waste to engaging in productive waste management practices as a form of gratitude (syukur) for the resources bestowed by Allah

Reviving local practices in river stewardship that align with Islamic principles of mizan (balance) and the prohibition of causing fasad (corruption) on earth [56].

Through the internalization of Qur’anic environmental ethics, the community is expected to transform from agents of destruction into pioneers of river conservation, as part of their responsibility and human stewardship (khilafah) on earth [53].

First, this study finds that flooding in Bekasi is not merely a natural phenomenon, but a manifestation of fasad (corruption) that is both physical and metaphysical, resulting from the neglect of the ethics of khilafah in development practices along riverbanks. This strategic framework emphasizes that any urban development must align with the cosmic equilibrium established by the Creator, prioritizing long-term ecological stability over short-term economic gain.

Second, the Qur’an positions rivers as Ayatullah (signs of Allah’s power) that have the right to flow, yet this right is often diminished by land conversion, river narrowing, and industrial and residential expansion. This reductionist approach to water bodies ignores the inherent sanctity of the river as a divine sign, leading to a spiritual and ecological vacuum in urban spatial planning. This finding supports the idea that “The Qur’an defines nature as signs of God, thus enhancing awareness of the sanctity of the natural world” [28].

Third, this study formulates a strategy for the reactualization of river management through the concept of “Rivers as the Sacred Core of Life,” an approach based on the principle of mizan (balance) to ensure that river use does not exceed the natural carrying and support capacity. This concept challenges the modern view in which “rivers and forest are viewed merely as resources to be exploited rather than sacred creations to be revered” [5].

Theoretically, this study enriches the field of ecological exegesis by presenting an applied example through a specific urban case study, while simultaneously expanding the analytical scope of Qur’anic environmental ethics within contemporary urban contexts. It bridges the gap between normative theological texts and empirical urban crises, demonstrating that Qur'anic values are not merely abstract ideals but functional instruments for environmental auditing and ethical evaluation [57]. This study therefore moves beyond static textual analysis by offering a dynamic model of ecotheological auditing that evaluates both structural policy arrangements and patterns of cultural and social behavior related to environmental management.

Practically, the findings provide strategic recommendations for urban policymakers, particularly those in Bekasi Regency, emphasizing that river restoration efforts cannot rely solely on technical-structural approaches, such as constructing concrete infrastructure or reinforcing river embankments. Instead, sustainable river governance must also involve the internalization of environmental ethical values among communities living along riverbanks through a religiously grounded approach [58]. By integrating the spirit of amanah into public policy, governmental authority can transform administrative compliance into a collective moral movement that supports long-term and sustainable river conservation.