The subjects of this study are (1) Amina Wadud’s interpretive writings, including Qur’an and Woman, and (2) Qur’anic verses related to gender hierarchy, particularly Surah An-Nisa 1 and 34. The data sources consist of:

The main research instrument is the researcher, functioning as a human instrument who selects, interprets, and synthesizes textual data. To support rigor, a text analysis sheet is used to categorize themes such as equality, patriarchy, justice, hermeneutical principles, and contextual interpretation. Data collection techniques include: (1) document analysis, (2) note-taking, (3) coding of textual themes.

Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis consisting of three stages:

This analytical process is complemented by a critical hermeneutical interpretation, which situates the text within its socio-historical context while exploring its ethical and theological implications for contemporary Muslim communities. Through this methodological framework, the study aims to produce a comprehensive and context-sensitive analysis of Amina Wadud’s interpretation of gender-related Qur’anic verses.

Amina Wadud is a Muslim intellectual from the United States who is known as one of the leading figures in the development of discourse on gender equality in Islam. He born on September 25, 1952 in Bethesda, Maryland, to a Christian family A devout Methodist. At the age of 20, he made a big decision in his life by converted to Islam. This decision was not merely a religious conversion, but also became the starting point of his deep spiritual search and commitment to understanding critically examine Islamic teachings, especially from the perspective of women who have been less find space in the interpretation of religious texts [15][16].

After converting to Islam, Wadud intensively studied Islamic sciences, especially in the field of interpretation of the Qur'an, and began to focus his studies on the issue of gender relations in Islamic context[17]. He seeks to present an alternative perspective that is more just and inclusive of women through a hermeneutic approach that emphasizes the importance of historical context, linguistics, and ethics in understanding revelation [18], [19]. One of the events that made his name He became widely known globally when he led Friday prayers for a mixed male congregation. and women in New York in 2005. This action, although considered progressive by some parties, also gave rise to quite widespread controversy among Muslims, especially who have conservative views [20].

However, this bold step further strengthens Amina Wadud's position as a symbol of the struggle against patriarchal domination in religious institutions. Through his works in his work, he emphasized that the principles of justice and equality are at the heart of Islamic teachings, and that women have equal rights in terms of religious interpretation and participation in religious life [11]. His contributions have had a major influence on Islamic studies contemporary, especially in building awareness of the importance of interpreting the Qur'an side with gender justice [21].

Amina Wadud pursued her undergraduate education at the University of Pennsylvania and succeeded earned a Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education in 1975. After completing After his first level education, he continued his postgraduate studies at the University of Michigan, where he studied Islamic Studies and Arabic until obtaining a Master's and Doctorate degree [22], [23]. During his academic journey, he also gained knowledge at various universities. renowned Islamic educational institutions, including the American University in Cairo and Al Azhar, which is the world's leading center of Islamic scholarship. The combination of Islamic education Western and traditional Islamic training gave Wadud broad and deep insight. about the Qur'an and the science of interpretation. This scientific background is an important foundation in the formation and development of her thoughts on Islamic feminism. Based on strong knowledge in the study of classical and modern Islamic texts, he is able to formulate a critical interpretive approach but still based on Islamic principles. This approach is the basis for his efforts to build a discourse on gender justice. based on a contextual and ethical understanding of the Qur'an [20], [21].

Amina Wadud's intellectual background is heavily influenced by her dual identity as a an African-American woman and convert to Islam who grew up in a social environment that was often colored by discrimination, both in terms of race and gender[24]. Her life experiences This complex forms his awareness of structural inequality which is also reflected in the interpretation of Islamic teachings [25]. He views that various problems faced by Muslim women do not originate directly from the text of the Qur'an the Qur'an, but rather from a way of interpretation that has long been dominated by the perspective of male scholars. who tend to have a patriarchal mindset [21].

The experience of marginalization he experienced prompted him to re-evaluate the tradition of interpretation. The Qur'an with a more inclusive and equitable approach towards women. This is where it comes from began to develop a hermeneutic approach, namely an interpretation method that emphasizes the importance of understanding sacred texts in historical, social and concrete life experience contexts, especially women's experiences. In this way, Wadud attempts to present a reading review of the Qur'an which is not only textual, but also ethical and contextual so that can open up space for upholding the values of gender justice in Islam [26].

This intellectual background plays a significant role in shaping her scholarly works and interpretative approach.

The name Amina Wadud is starting to get widespread attention among academics and gender activists. after publishing his work entitled Qur'an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective in 1992. The book became a milestone in the development of Islamic feminist discourse, because it offers a re-reading of the text of the Qur'an from a woman's perspective. Using a hermeneutic approach, Wadud trying to dismantle the patriarchal biases that have colored traditional interpretations against the verses of the Quran [27]. In this work, Wadud firmly rejects the view that states that the Qur'an contains principles that demean or discriminate against women. Instead, he emphasized that the core teachings of the Qur'an is actually full of values of justice and equality, which also include human rights women in various aspects of life. This critical approach aims to returning the Qur'an to its normative essence, namely as a holy book that brings mercy and justice for all humanity, regardless of gender [15].

Then in 2006, Wadud reaffirmed his commitment to the issue of justice. gender through her second work entitled Inside the Gender Jihad: Women's Reform in Islam. In this book, she discusses further the struggle of Muslim women in fights for social justice and reform in the Islamic legal system. The work does not not only theoretical, but also reflects personal experiences and collective movements women in the face of unjust social structures. These two works make Amina Wadud as one of the important pioneers in the contemporary Islamic feminist thought stream [15].

Her major works, particularly Qur’an and Woman, provide the foundation for understanding her interpretative approach to specific Qur’anic verses, including Surah An-Nisa verses 1 and 34.

An-Nisa' Verse 1

يٰٓاَيُّهَا النَّاسُ اتَّقُوْا رَبَّكُمُ الَّذِيْ خَلَقَكُمْ مِّنْ نَّفْسٍ وَّاحِدَةٍ وَّخَلَقَ مِنْهَا زَوْجَهَا وَبَثَّ مِنْهُمَا رِجَالًا كَثِيْرًا وَّنِسَاۤءًۚ وَاتَّقُوا اللّٰهَ الَّذِيْ تَسَاۤءَلُوْنَ بِه وَالْاَرْحَامَۗ اِنَّ اللّٰهَ كَانَ عَلَيْكُمْ رَقِيْبًا

"O mankind! Fear your Lord who created you from a single soul. (Adam), and (Allah) created his wife (Eve) from (himself); and from both of them Allah multiplying many men and women. Fear Allah, In His name you ask one another, and (maintain) the ties of kinship. Indeed, Allah is always watching over you.”[28].

The above verse presents the basic elements in the Qur'anic version of the story of human origins, the story generally understood as the creation of Adam and Eve. To help in our understanding, we will look at these three key terms: min, nafs and zawj[2].

Min, in this sentence the use of the word "min" has been interpreted with one or both meanings above. Each interpretation gives different results or understanding, depending on the meaning which of the "min" is chosen by the commentator. For example, in the tafsir of al-Zamakhshari, this verse It is understood that mankind was created from one "nafs" (soul/source of self) which is the origin all human beings, and that the partner (zawj) of the "nafs" is taken from it. Al-Zamakhshari also refers to the Biblical version to support his view that the couple extracted (taken literally) from the "nafs"[29]. In addition, other verses such as in the letter Al A'raf 189 and the letter Az-Zum

ar verse 6 state that Allah "ja'ala" (makes) a couple from the "nafs". The verb "ja'ala" here means "to create something from something else". other", thus strengthening that the word "min" (from it) means "extracted from" i.e. derived from physically or substantially from the first[2].

When the word "min" is interpreted as meaning "of the same kind or type", for both its appearance in the verse in question, this interpretation is often based on other verses in the Qur'an which uses a similar formula, namely the plural form of nafs (anfus) and zawj (azwaj), as found in Surah An-Nahl verse 72, Ash-Shura verse 11, and Ar-Rum verse 21. These verses are then interpreted to mean that the pairs (zawj/ azwaj) come from the same type or the same essence as humans themselves does not originate physically or literally. However, in English translations, the word "min" in all of these verses remains translated as "from" (dari). This opens up another possibility: that the literal meaning is “taken from” may still be considered valid. However, both the interpretation and the translation remain unconfirmed. clearly explain the meaning of the two most important terms in the verse [2], namely:

Nafs, in its technical use in the Qur'an, refers to the common origin of all beings. mankind. Although humans later spread throughout the world and were divided into different nations, tribes, languages and skin colors, we all come from one country the same source which is "nafs" which is Tunggal [2].

In the creation story according to the Quran, Allah never intended to begin creation. humans with only one man, even the Qur'an never explicitly mentions it that the origin of mankind began with Adam (the male). Furthermore, the Qur'an does not state that the creation of man began with the nafs of Adam (male human) [30]. This is important to note because the version of human creation in the Qur'an is not conveyed with terms or emphasis on gender [2].

Zawj, grammatically, zawj is a masculine word, so it uses adjectives and verbs which ends in masculine. Conceptually, zawj is neither male nor female in the literal sense. special. This word is even used in the Qur'an not only for humans, but also for plants (Ar-Rahman verse 52) and animals (Hud 40) as pairs or groups [2].

The absence of detail in the Qur'an indicates one or more of the following: first, the reader already has enough information about a story that additional details are needed considered unnecessary or even excessive; second, the details are less important for the intended purpose. what the Qur'an wanted to convey at that time; third, the Qur'an refers to something unseen or invisible, which is difficult to explain with limited human language. With considering these things, it can be asserted that the Qur'an provides very little information about the first human couple [2].

An-Nisa' Verse 34

اَلرِّجَالُ قَوَّامُوْنَ عَلَى النِّسَاۤءِ بِمَا فَضَّلَ اللّٰهُ بَعْضَهُمْ عَلٰى بَعْضٍ وَّبِمَآ اَنْفَقُوْا مِنْ اَمْوَالِهِمْ ۗ فَالصّٰلِحٰتُ قٰنِتٰتٌ حٰفِظٰتٌ لِّلْغَيْبِ بِمَا حَفِظَ اللّٰهُ ۗوَالّٰتِيْ تَخَافُوْنَ نُشُوْزَهُنَّ فَعِظُوْهُنَّ وَاهْجُرُوْهُنَّ فِى الْمَضَاجِعِ وَاضْرِبُوْهُنَّ ۚ فَاِنْ اَطَعْنَكُمْ فَلَا تَبْغُوْا عَلَيْهِنَّ سَبِيْلًا ۗاِنَّ اللّٰهَ كَانَ عَلِيًّا كَبِيْرًا

"Men (husbands) are protectors of women (wives), because Allah has made some of them excel in their profession." they (men) over some others (women), and because they (men) have provide for her from her wealth. So the righteous women are those who obey (Allah) and take care of herself when (her husband) is not there, because Allah has taken care of her (them). Women from whom you fear nusyuz, you should give them advise them, leave them in bed (separate beds), and (if necessary) beat them. But if they obey you, then do not look for an excuse to "Trouble him. Indeed, Allah is Most High, Most Great." [28]

This verse does not only discuss the issue of priority or preference. Classically, this verse considered the most important verse that explains the relationship between men and women, namely that "men are the qawwamun'ala women" (the ones responsible or the caretakers) women). However, before discussing this further, it is important to note that this relationship based on two main things: first, the priority or preference given by Allah to some men; secondly, what they spend from their wealth to support themselves women. In other words, it reflects socio-economic norms and ideals in relationships men and women [2]. This verse shows that the responsibility men over women is based on the advantages that Allah has given to some of them. them and their role in providing sustenance [31]. This reflects a socio-economic rule in which men serves as the protector and supporter of the family, so that the relationship between the two is not is not merely a matter of individual superiority, but rather is related to the obligation to protect and support both materially and morally.

The translation of the phrase "on the basis of" comes from the word bi' in this verse. In the sentence structure In Arabic, bi' is used to indicate that what is mentioned before the word depends or is determined by what is mentioned after it. In the context of this verse, this means Men only become qawwam (responsible) for women if two conditions are met: First, there are certain advantages or virtues; second, that men provide for women from his property. So, if one of these two conditions is not met, the man cannot referred to as qawwam for the woman [2].

Amina Wadud's concern lies in the word "faddala" (having prioritized). The verse states that the position between men and women is based on "what" has been Allah is more. If viewed from a material point of view, the only verse in the Qur'an that is explicitly shows that Allah gives more shares to men than to women. women are in terms of inheritance. In this context, the share for men is twice double the share of women (An-Nisa' verse 7) in one family. However, this does not mean that absolutely all males will inherit more than all females. The amount inheritance is very dependent on the amount of wealth of the family itself. So, the advantage of men in this case it is relative, not absolute. In addition, if this verse does refer to the form advantages shown through the inheritance system, then those advantages are also non-renewable absolute or absolute. This relationship is often considered logical because other conditions of qiwamah (men's responsibility towards women) is that they provide for women from their property them[32]. Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between privilege and responsibility: men has an obligation to spend his wealth to support women, and therefore they are given a larger share of the inheritance. This creates a balance between the roles financial and economic rights in the social structure of the family according to the perspective of the Qur'an. However, it cannot be ignored that many men interpret the verse as a form of virtue absolute superiority of men over women. They believe that men were created by God as superior to women. superior to women, especially in terms of physical strength and intelligence. This view make the verse a justification for male domination, without considering that the virtue in the verse is actually contextual and conditional, namely related to with economic responsibility and not absolute intrinsic or natural superiority [2].

The word faddala (prioritize) cannot be understood absolutely, because this verse does not states "they (men) are preferred over them (women)" in the plural form which firmly. On the contrary, the verse uses the word ba'd (some) of them for ba'd (some) others. The use of this word indicates that the excess in question is of a special nature. relative and contextual, in accordance with diverse human realities. Not all men are better superior to all women in all things; on the other hand, there are women who are superior than some men in certain aspects. So, whatever form of priority is given by God, it is not absolute, but depends on the situation and individual abilities. If what Allah emphasizes in the verse is limited to material aspects (especially regarding inheritance), then the scope and form of this virtue have been explained in the Qur'an. However, even though what is meant is more than just inheritance it may include other things still, according to the wording of the verse itself, this priority is limited to only "some of them" over "some others". This means that men are called qawwamun (responsible) for women. in certain cases where Allah gives some men an advantage over others women, and in a context where men provide for them. Thus, it is clear that men as a group cannot be absolutely considered qawwamun over all women as a group. The relationship of responsibility is specific and conditional, not absolute and comprehensive[2].

However, to understand this important difference in more depth, a more detailed explanation is needed qawwamuna ‘ala (قَوَّامُوْنَ عَلَى) phrase regarding further. What does it actually mean, and how the limits of its application? In terms of meaning, Pickthall translates it as "responsible responsible for" or "lead". Al-Zamakhshari interpreted that men take care of affairs women, while Maududi stated that men are the regulators of women's affairs because Allah has made men superior to women [33]. However, Azizah al-Hibri strongly criticized the translation which gave the impression that men were protector or nurturer of women, because according to him the main meaning of the phrase is moral guidance and care. He also emphasized that the right to self-determination for women remain valid, except in extreme circumstances such as mental disorders. However, Many men misuse this verse to justify absolute authority over women. women, and to claim their inherent superiority and divine decree. (divine ordinance) that men are superior to women. Thus, the meaning qawwamuna 'ala should not be understood as a form of domination, but rather as relational responsibility based on caring and contribution, not superiority absolutely[2]

Several important questions arise regarding the limits of the application of this phrase: Are all men Is qawwamun applicable to all women? Or does this only apply within the family circle, so that the men in a family are qawwamun over the women? Or in fact, is this even narrower, only applicable within the bonds of marriage, where the husband is qawwamun over the wife? These three possibilities have been put forward by scholars. In general In general, a scholar who understands that the word faddala (excess/virtue) indicates the absolute superiority of men over women, tends not to limit the meaning of qiwamah (leadership or responsibility) in family relationships alone, but extends it to the realm of socially in general. In this understanding, men are positioned as superior beings, while women are considered as dependent and inferior. However, the approach This kind of ignores the complexity of the meaning and editorial context of the verse in the Qur'an. Qur'an. When viewed more critically, there is no need to generalize the role of qawwamun to all men over all women, because the wording of the verse itself is conditional and can interpreted more contextually and proportionally [2].

 Sayyid Qutb, whose opinion will be discussed in more depth, views the concept of qiwamah as an issue related to the family in the context of society. It limits the understanding regarding this verse on the relationship between husband and wife. According to him, the role of men as qawwamun for women is based on the obligation of men to provide for and providing material needs for women. In other words, qiwamah in his view has a main dimension in the economic aspect, namely men's financial responsibility towards her partner. The reason for limiting this verse to the domestic context is strengthened by the fact that the passage the continuation of the verse discusses issues directly related to husband-wife relationship. In addition, the next verse uses the dual form (mutsanna), which further emphasizes that the context is an interaction between two people, namely husband and wife. However, the previous verses actually discuss social relations between men and women. in general [2]

Amina, although acknowledging Sayyid Qutb's limitations of context, still chose to apply this verse to the wider community, not based on assumptions the innate superiority of men over women, and not because God honors men more than women. On the contrary, it expands the functional relations that Qutb conveyed in the household context becomes a larger relationship for the common good between men and women in society [34]. The author's main focus is on the responsibilities women's responsibilities and rights in giving birth and raising children, which are important aspects in social structure and division of roles [2]

Sayyid Qutb stated that men and women are both creations of Allah, and Allah never intended to oppress anyone from His creation. Both are part of from the most important institution in society, namely the family. The family itself begins with marriage between a man and a woman. In this family structure, each members have certain responsibilities. Biologically, women naturally bear the burden the primary responsibility in giving birth to a child. This responsibility is not a trivial matter, it is very important because human survival depends on it. To carry out the task This requires physical strength, endurance, intelligence, and a deep personal commitment. However, if women's responsibilities are so great and crucial, then in fairness, men should also must bear equally important responsibilities for the sake of balance and justice in creation, as well as to prevent injustice. According to Qutb, that responsibility is qiwamah, namely ensuring that women are not burdened with duties additional things that could interfere with or weaken her primary responsibilities as a mother and caregivers of the next generation, a task that cannot be replaced by men. With In other words, qiwamah is not a form of domination, but is a system of reciprocal responsibility. for the sake of common well-being and the survival of human life[2].

All these problems cannot be solved if we only look narrowly at verse 34. Therefore, the Qur'an must always be reviewed by taking into account human interaction. and shared responsibilities between men and women. This verse establishes the ideal obligations for men towards women to create a balanced and mutually beneficial society. sharing. This responsibility is not something that is biological or inherently attached, but rather has important values. This attitude of prioritizing responsibility must be built and developed. It is clear that there are many cases where this attitude has not been achieved. However, this attitude of responsibility should not only be limited to qiwamah in material matters. alone. More broadly, this responsibility must also include spiritual, moral, and social dimensions. intellectual, and psychological. By understanding qiwamah in a comprehensive way like this, men can truly carry out their caliphate on earth, as Allah has commanded to humans since creation. This attitude will eliminate the competitive mindset and hierarchical structure that is actually destructive, not constructive. Men are encouraged to fulfill their mandate them as caliphs on earth especially in their relationship with women, which is traditional child bearers and caregivers. The experience and knowledge that women have The benefits gained from the process of giving birth and caring for children can begin to be understood and experienced by men, starting from how they view and treat women [2].

Building upon this interpretation, the following section critically analyzes how Wadud’s approach deconstructs patriarchal bias in classical exegesis.

This analysis directly addresses the research objectives by examining how Wadud’s feminist hermeneutical framework challenges patriarchal interpretations and offers a more inclusive understanding of gender in Islam.

Amina Wadud's thinking on patriarchal bias stems from her view that gender inequality in Islam stems not from the Quranic text itself, but from the way it is interpreted within a male-dominated tradition[24]. According to Wadud, classical interpretations are built on the experiences, interests, and perspectives of male interpreters, often placing women as passive objects in social and theological constructions[6]. This epistemological dominance creates a patriarchal bias that is passed down from generation to generation, becoming considered an inherent part of religious teachings [35]. For Wadud, this is the main problem patriarchal readings are accepted as authoritative, while women's experiences are considered irrelevant to the interpretative process.

In verse 1 of Surah An-Nisa, Amina Wadud emphasizes that the Qur’an affirms the origin of humanity from a single nafs (a single soul or entity), which contains no division or hierarchy based on gender. The concept of nafs waḥidah indicates that from the outset, the Qur’an establishes the principle of ontological equality between men and women, recognizing both as equally created beings with the same dignity and responsibility before God[36]. Consequently, biological differences between men and women cannot be used as a theological basis to justify the superiority of one gender over the other.

Furthermore, the use of the term zawj in this verse does not imply subordination but rather denotes a reciprocal and complementary relationship between men and women. According to Wadud’s analysis, zawj represents a partnership grounded in mutuality and interdependence, rather than a hierarchical structure that privileges one party over the other. The concept of zawj, therefore, should be understood as an ethical relationship founded on balance, cooperation, and shared responsibility.

Based on this framework, Wadud critically challenges classical interpretations that claim women were created from men particularly from Adam’s rib and are consequently positioned as subordinate. She argues that such interpretations do not arise from the Qur’anic text itself but rather from patriarchal social constructs that later became embedded in exegetical traditions. As a result, the notion of women’s subordination is not a Qur’anic doctrine, but a product of androcentric readings that neglect the Qur’an’s core commitment to justice and equality. Through her feminist hermeneutical approach, Wadud seeks to restore the ethical and universal message of the verse by reaffirming human equality beyond gender distinctions.

In verse 34, patriarchal bias becomes more evident through the interpretation of the phrase qawwamuna ‘ala, which has traditionally been translated as male leadership or domination over women. Wadud rejects this interpretation, arguing that qiwamah is more accurately understood as a moral and social responsibility rather than an absolute authority [37].The verse addresses the trust placed upon men to maintain family stability and to fulfill domestic and economic responsibilities within specific social contexts, not as a legitimation to control or restrict women. From this perspective, qiwamah is not a “privilege,” but an ethical obligation constrained by the principle of justice.

Wadud also critically examines the interpretation of the term faḍḍala. Traditionally, this term has been understood as indicating an absolute superiority of all men over all women. However, the verse employs the expression ba‘ḍuhum ‘ala ba‘ḍ, which suggests that such advantage is contextual and contingent upon particular social and economic conditions, especially the responsibility of family provision. This reading reinforces the idea that gender relations in the Qur’an are dynamic, balanced, and responsibility-based, rather than static, hierarchical power relations.

Beyond linguistic analysis, Wadud emphasizes the importance of situating these verses within their historical and social contexts [38]. According to her, patriarchal bias in Qur’anic exegesis emerges when classical interpreters fail to distinguish between their own socio-cultural realities and the normative message of the Qur’an (Barlas, 2006). As a result, the interpretations produced often reflect patriarchal cultural values more than the Qur’an’s ethical commitment to justice. Therefore, a critical, contextual, and gender-sensitive rereading becomes essential to recover the moral substance of the verses more clearly.

Furthermore, Wadud develops the concept of qiwamah as a responsibility encompassing spiritual, moral, intellectual, and psychological dimensions. This interpretation positions men not as controllers, but as partners tasked with fostering harmonious and non-dominative relationships[39]. In this way, Wadud’s understanding of qiwāmah functions both as a critique and a corrective to patriarchal interpretations that have long been embedded in certain exegetical traditions.

Ultimately, Wadud’s thought aims not only to identify patriarchal bias but also to contribute to a more inclusive understanding of Islam. The inclusive Islam she envisions is grounded in the Qur’an’s foundational principles of justice, dignity, and moral equality. Therefore, any interpretation that perpetuates gender injustice must be reconsidered. Wadud’s hermeneutical framework provides pathways for interpreting gender-related verses in ways that are ethical, contextually sensitive, and relevant for contemporary Muslim societies, including those in Indonesia.

Overall, the discussion demonstrates that Wadud’s interpretation not only critiques patriarchal bias but also reconstructs a more just and contextually grounded understanding of Qur’anic teachings on gender.